Kudu Antelope Chemical Immobilization
The kudu is one of the largest African antelopes. There are two subspecies of kudu: the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis). The kudu is considered to be the most handsome of the tragelaphine antelopes, which includes the eland, bongo, nyuala, bushbuck and sitatunga.1 Kudu have stripes and spots on their bodies and a chevron of white hair on the forehead between the eyes. Adult males have a short beard of dark hair and a fringe of long hair down the throat.
The males of the greater kudu have long, spiral horns which can grow as long as 72 inches (6 feet). These horns have long been prized in Africa for use as musical instruments, containers and symbolic ritual objects. The horns are seldom used in defense against predators. Female kudu are significantly smaller than the males and do not have horns. The greater kudu inhabits the dense brush and forested areas of southern Africa, while the lesser kudu is found in the arid lowland thornbush of northeast and East Africa.2
Sedation and Anesthesia of Kudu
Wildlife managers, researchers and veterinarians in zoo settings sometimes need to immobilize kudu to mark them for identification, to provide veterinary treatment or to relocate them from dangerous or overpopulated locations. While the term “immobilization” references any forced restriction of movement of all or part of an animal’s body, chemical immobilization is achieved using drugs which have a range of intended effects. Sedation involves widespread muscular paralysis while the animal is fully or partially conscious, while anesthesia produces unconsciousness with lack of sensation.
The immobilization of kudu can pose significant challenges with risks for both handlers and these animals, and this is where immobilization via chemical means is useful. All antelope are prey animals, and have evolved with instincts and behaviors to help them survive; this must be considered in any capture scenario involving kudu. An animal’s threshold of tolerance refers to the point at which a trapped animal will become aggressive upon human approach.3
Drug Delivery and Procedures
Nearly all antelope species are large enough to be considered difficult to handle. In these cases, chemical agents (sedatives and/or anesthetics) may be delivered by hand to a restrained antelope by using a pole syringe, or by using a capture gun (either a handgun or a long gun). Capture guns are fired by CO2 gas cartridges or with .22 caliber blanks. Syringes (often called darts) are loaded through a breech, one shot at a time. The effective range may be up to 60 yards.3 Remote chemical immobilization is often carried out by approaching an animal and shooting a dart from a helicopter, an off-road vehicle, or from the ground.
Depending on the procedure(s) being performed, kudu may be handled using heavy sedation or general anesthesia for invasive surgical procedures. Drug choices and combinations must be of proven safety for each species and calculated for the weight, age, physiological and reproductive status and body condition. Antelope vary widely in size, and each species of antelope has its own anesthesia recommendations with intra-species variations of dosages because of diverse individual responses to anesthetic agents.3,4
The chemical immobilization of kudu also carries risks for physiological complications. These include, but are not limited to capture myopathy, hypothermia, hyperthermia, respiratory depression/arrest, aspiration and cardiac arrest. Additionally, if the onset (induction) of anesthesia is slow, the risk of physical injury such as lacerations, limb injuries, head trauma etc. is increased. It is therefore extremely important for personnel in the field and/or support staff to be familiar with animal handling and immobilization techniques, as well as potential emergencies.
Immobilizing Agents
In the U.S., the possession and use of drugs used to capture kudu is governed by both federal and state regulations. All drugs currently used to sedate or immobilize wild animals are prescription drugs and must be used by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian. This requires a veterinarian must be involved in the process, but it does not necessarily mandate that a veterinarian be on site during the immobilization process. Non-veterinarians using prescription drugs should receive adequate training in their use.
The classes of immobilizing agents used on kudu include:
Paralytic Drugs: The neuromuscular blocking (NMB) or paralytic drugs are some of the earliest drugs used for the chemical immobilization of wildlife. Despite their long history of use, NMB drugs are generally inferior to modern drugs. There are two major deficiencies of NMB drugs. One is that these drugs have a very low safety margin and dosage errors of only 10% can result in either no effect (underdosing) or death by asphyxia (overdosing). Mortality rates as high as 70% have occurred.3 The second deficiency is that NMB drugs are virtually devoid of central nervous system effects because of their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Thus, an animal paralyzed with NMB drugs is conscious, aware of its surroundings, fully sensory, and, as such, can feel pain and experience psychogenic stress, yet is physically unable to react.4
Tranquilizers/Sedatives: Tranquilizers are used primarily in wildlife immobilization as adjuncts to primary anesthetics (e.g., ketamine, carfentanil) to hasten and smooth induction and recovery and to reduce the amount of the primary agent required to achieve immobilization. Valium is used primarily for small mammals as an anticonvulsant adjunct to ketamine anesthesia and it is also an excellent muscle relaxant. The α-adrenergic tranquilizers (e.g., xylazine or Rompun, medetomidine) are potent sedatives and can be completely antagonized. They are often combined with ketamine, Telazol, or carfentanil. By themselves, they are capable of heavily sedating animals, particularly ungulates, to the point of relatively safe handling. However, animals sedated with these tranquilizers generally can be aroused with stimulation and are capable of directed attack. Caution should always be exercised in such animals even though they may appear harmless.
Dissociative Anesthetics: This group of drugs (such as ketamine and tiletamine) are characterized by producing a cataleptic state (a malleable rigidity of the limbs) in which the eyes remain open with intact corneal and light reflexes. Ketamine is probably one of the most widely used drugs for wildlife immobilization because of its efficacy and safety. Tiletamine is unavailable as a single product and it is combined in equal proportions with the diazepinone tranquilizer, zolazepam (e.g., Telazol).When used singly, ketamine usually cause rough inductions and recoveries, and convulsions are not uncommon. Because of this, they are usually administered concurrently with tranquilizers or sedatives. There is no complete antagonist for ketamine or Telazol.
Opioid Anesthetics: The opioids have been used for animal immobilization since the 1960s and are the most potent drugs available for this purpose. The most commonly used opioid is carfentanil. A major advantage in the use of opioids is the availability of specific antagonists. The potency of opioids, such as etorphine and carfentanil, is both an advantage and disadvantage. The advantage is the reduced volume of drug required for immobilization makes them the only class of drugs capable of remote immobilization of large animals. The disadvantage is that they are potentially toxic to humans. Death is almost always due to respiratory failure. Opioid immobilizing agents should never be used while working alone or without having an antagonist immediately on hand.4
Reversal Agents and Recovery
The duration of anesthesia in kudu will be influenced by the drugs used, age, sex, body weight, procedure performed and the amount of stimulus during the procedure. Whether sedation or general anesthesia has been employed, reversal agentsare often required to neutralize sedation or anesthetic agents, thus allowing the animal to completely recover from being anesthetized. This is even more important in the field than in a clinic or zoo setting, because a chemically-compromised animal will be in danger of injury, predation and other hazards.
Concerns in the area of conservation and humane treatment have helped to bring about the refinement of chemical immobilization protocols and drug development to keep these within safety margins through the use of novel anesthetics, including combinations of true anesthetics, neuromuscular blockers and tranquilizers.4 The use of antagonists to anesthetics is now widely employed, since this avoids the undesirable and potentially harmful effects of drugs and facilitates speedy recovery from chemical immobilization events.5,6
Veterinary custom compounding pharmacies have widely expanded the variety, availability and efficacy of immobilizing drugs through the development of custom formulations for wildlife such as antelope. Some of these are available in kit form, which include both the immobilizing drugs and reversal agents.
2britannica.com.
3Pennfoster.edu. Animal Handling And Chemical Immobilization.
4Arnemo, Jon & Kreeger, Terry. (2018). Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization 5th Ed.
5Nielsen, L. Chemical Immobilization of Wild and Exotic Animals. (1999) Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press.
6Stoskopf, M. Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 2014 50:1, 157-157.
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NexGen Pharmaceuticals is an industry-leading veterinary compounding pharmacy, offering sterile and non-sterile compounding services nationwide. Unlike other veterinary compounding pharmacies, NexGen focuses on drugs that are difficult to find or are no longer available due to manufacturer discontinuance or have yet to be offered commercially for veterinary applications, but which still serve a critical need for our customers. We also specialize in wildlife pharmaceuticals, including sedatives and their antagonists, offering many unique options to serve a wide array of zoo animal and wildlife immobilization and anesthesia requirements.
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