Capture myopathy (CM) is a serious condition that can occur in wild and domestic animals wherein muscle damage results from extreme exertion, struggle, or stress. It is also known as exertional myopathy, overstraining disease and exertional rhabdomyo …

“Antelope” is a common name that has been ascribed to various members of the family Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The pronghorn antelope, Antilocapra americana, is the only member in the Antilocapridae family.1 Antelope males and the females of some sp …

Aspiration is described as when a foreign substance enters the airway or lungs; this can apply to food, liquid, or other materials. Aspiration can give rise to serious health problems, such as pneumonia. Aspiration can occur when a human or animal ha …

Vomiting is one of the more common post-sedation and post-anesthesia complications in both domestic and exotic animals. Vomiting once or twice after a surgical procedure can be considered normal however, if the vomiting continues, it can be a sign of …

Managing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) often requires the live capture of individual animals, and chemical immobilization often is the most effective method of capture.1 Throughout the modern history of the chemical immobilization of wil …

Gastric ulcers (often referenced as gastroduodenal ulcer disease) in dogs refers to ulcers found in the dog's stomach and/or the first section of the small intestine, also known as the duodenum.1 The gastric mucosal barrier in the dog’s digestive tra …

One of the most challenging aspects of wildlife veterinary medicine is the process of determining the correct dosages for wildlife species when providing chemical immobilization. Chemical immobilization is a form of animal restraint in which medicati …

Wildlife practice is an extremely specialized area of veterinary medicine, and restraint nearly always requires the use of anesthetic drugs to allow a safe and efficient immobilization before the practitioner proceeds with plans for the targeted indi …

Mink are members of the weasel family and are native to the Northern Hemisphere. Historically, both the American mink (Neovison vison) and the European mink (Mustela lutreola) have been valued for their fur. The American mink is a staple of the fur i …

Anesthesia is an integral part of exotic animal medicine, whether in the field, or in research or zoo settings. Even the most basic procedures typically require sedation or anesthesia, since most animals are either too shy, fast, or dangerous to hand …

The family Mustelidae comprises stoats, polecats, mink, fishers, wolverines, weasels, martens, badgers, and otters, and is the largest family within the order Carnivora. Mustelids have a global distribution, with members found on every continent exce …

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are the smallest members of the North American deer family, and are found from southern Canada to South America. Favoring wooded areas, the home range of a White-tailed deer is usually less than one square m …

There are numerous drug and drug combinations that are used for the remote immobilization of wildlife species, but only a few have become standards amongst veterinarians and wildlife managers. For years, many large wildlife species have been remotely …

In recent decades, conservation efforts and the endangered status of certain wildlife species have become more prominent among wildlife biologists and lay persons alike. Innumerable conservation efforts focused on wild animals (including mammals and …

The chemical immobilization of wild animals is a form of veterinary anesthesia conducted under difficult circumstances.1Historically, chemical immobilization can be traced back to certain tribes from South America who used curare-coated arrows in the …

These days, a cursory web search will show that there are literally hundreds of safe capture chemical immobilization courses being offered in the U.S. alone. Typically sponsored by universities, zoos and wildlife management bureaus, these courses off …

Field wildlife anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures. Typically, anesthesia for noninvasive procedures is utilized for the safety of the handlers and animals. Further, anesthesia and analgesia are crucial componen …

Capturing and chemically immobilizing a bear can be the most traumatic incident of its life, thus, it is extremely important to justify all capture and trapping procedures. Anyone involved in the chemical immobilization of bear or any wildlife should …

An interest in llamas and alpacas as pets, breeding and pack animals has led to increased demand for veterinary services for these animals. Despite having certain unique species characteristics regarding anesthesia, many of the principles and techniq …

The improvement of chemical capture protocols and procedures is an important part of wildlife conservation and animal welfare, in order to minimize distress and the risk of morbidity and mortality in these animals. Throughout history, people have bee …

Chemical restraint (with or without local anesthesia) has long been used to perform diagnostic or minor surgical procedures in small ruminants. However, anesthetic and analgesic techniques are required when specific diagnostic procedures and painful …

Milk has been an important food source for humans since the domestication of dairy animals began. It is a common component of the animal-derived food products that comprise many diets. Methods to ensure the safety and quality of goat milk and milk pr …

Ovine foot rot is a costly disease in the sheep industry, with producers losing time and money each year in their attempts to control this condition in their flocks. When foot rot becomes a problem on a farm, it takes a great deal of effort to contro …

Field anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures on wild animals. For invasive procedures, the potential for immediate and lasting pain must be addressed and appropriate analgesia provided. In situations where the mini …

Many procedures that are regularly carried out in domestic animals with minimal restraint require sedation or anesthesia for the safety of the exotic animal, the veterinarian and support staff. This is true whether the exotic animal is captive (in a …

Moose (Alces alces) is the largest member of the deer family; they are found in the northern regions of Eurasia and North America. While the Eurasian and American moose are very similar, the American moose is somewhat larger and is considered by some …

The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the most widely distributed large wild cat, and occupies a broad variety of habitats, ranging from rainforests to deserts and from the fringes of urban areas to remote mountain ranges.1 The Indian subspecies, Panthera …

The sedation and immobilization of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a tricky proposition due to a combination of problems often encountered in such procedures that can result in mortality or morbidity to the animal.1 Giraffes have a unique anatomy …

Goats can suffer from numerous diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites as well as non-infectious agents. Diagnosing disease conditions in the goat can be difficult, since many diseases manifest similarly in this species. However, the progress …

Diseases of farm and feedlot animals regularly threaten the lives of millions of livestock. These animals are relied upon in the food supply, meaning that massive losses can lead to widespread food shortages. In March of 2018, 73,500 chickens were cu …

Elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) are the largest subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus), found in North America and in the high mountains of Central Asia. Also called wapiti, elk are members of the deer family, Cervidae (order Artiodactyla). Recent g …

The mountain lion (Puma concolor) is the largest wild felid in the North American continent. It is also frequently known as the cougar or puma. Mountain lions are obligate carnivores that can be found in varied habitats in the U.S. and Canada, althou …

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are approximately twice as the size of the average housecat. They have long legs, large paws, and tufted ears similar to those of their larger relative, the Canada lynx. Bobcats are brown or brownish-red with a white belly and a …

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is found throughout the Arctic region. These animals travel long distances over vast expanses, often on drifting oceanic ice floes, searching for seals, their primary prey. Polar bears are stocky in build, with a long …

Veterinarians generally agree that the cat is truly a “different breed of cat” when it comes to responses to disease and medical treatment in the small animal clinic. Dogs and cats are most often seen in the small animal veterinary practice, but asid …

Xylazine (xylazine HCl) is an α-2 adrenergic agonist that is commonly used for its sedative and analgesic properties in a variety of species.1 Xylazine is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in dogs, cats, horses, deer, an …

Capturing, immobilizing, and fitting for radio collars are common practices in studies of large mammals. However, many species of large mammals exist in remnant or “island-like” populations in which there is little or no gene flow.1 Concern amongst r …

The iconic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is one of the most highly-specialized and effective hunters in nature. As recently as 1900, it had a vast geographic range that spanned Africa, the Middle East and across Asia into the Indian subcontinent.1 Durin …

Nondomestic ruminants such as deer can be encountered in the wild, on exotic animal or cervid ranches on breeding farms, and in zoos or petting farms. In order to handle or treat species of deer, most require manual restraint using a hydraulic squeez …

Worms and other gastrointestinal parasites are very common in cats, and are among the most detrimental things that can impact a cat's overall health. Not only can certain worms eat away at the intestines, but they can also poach vital nutrients from …

Coccidia is a protozoan that infects the intestinal tract of cats and other species, causing coccidiosis. In cats, most coccidia encountered are of the genus called Isospora. Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta are the most common species of coccidia …

Coccidiosis is an intestinal tract infection caused by one-celled protozoa called coccidia. In cats, most coccidia encountered are of the genus called Isospora, with Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta being the most common species of coccidia affect …

Attention to detail in preparing for the capture or immobilization of deer may be the greatest predictor of a successful outcome. Anxiety, anticipation of danger, unfamiliar environments and crowded conditions can cause stress in animals and are usua …

Acute pain in cats is typically related to surgical procedures or following trauma. As unlikely as it may seem due to their legendary agility, cats do occasionally suffer from injuries due to misadventure, including falls. In the case of surgeries, p …

There has been an increased interest in the captive propagation of elephants and other large exotic animals in recent years, largely for reasons of conservation. As a result, more and more zoos and wildlife preserves are keeping, or anticipate holdin …

Cats tend to be different in their responses to injury, disease and medical treatment as compared to dogs or other animals typically seen in the small animal clinic.1 In human patients, a clinician can simply ask the patient how much pain he or she i …

Technically, pain is “an aversive sensory experience that causes response with protective motor actions, resulting in learned avoidance of the experience.”1 Adaptive pain is typically responsive to medication, whereas maladaptive pain (a spontaneous …

Immobilization is the imposed restriction of movement of all or part of an animal’s body, either by physical or chemical means. Typically, immobilization is used to facilitate management of some form (e.g., health, safety, conservation), and it …

Gastrointestinal parasites are common in cats, with prevalence rates as high as 45% in some populations.1 Several types of gastrointestinal parasites can infect cats of any age, although infestations in kittens can be far more serious than in adult c …

Distressing though it may be to cat owners, it is highly likely that at some point during every cat’s life, he or she will almost certainly be affected by worms or other gastrointestinal parasites. There are around eight different types of intestinal …

Gastric ulcers (or gastroduodenal ulcer disease) in dogs are lesions that form in the lining of the stomach or upper gastrointestinal tract. These occur when the surface layer (mucosal barrier) that lines the stomach becomes compromised. Many disease …

As with humans, our dogs may at some point require anesthesia for a surgery or some other procedure. Puppies typically receive anesthesia when they are spayed or neutered, and even procedures as simple as dentistries do require that a dog be anesthet …

Gastritis is a term used to describe inflammation of the lining of the stomach, with the most common sign associated with gastritis being vomiting. In cats, the signs may appear mild, or they can be debilitating or even life threatening, requiring ho …

While many lifelong dog owners have never experienced their beloved canines suffering from gastric ulcers (stomach or intestinal ulcers), this malady is quite common among dogs. Also called gastroduodenal ulcer disease, this syndrome applies to ulcer …

The peril of intestinal parasites is a serious concern for dog owners. Parasites and worms can cause a variety of ailments which range from minor gastrointestinal upset, all the way up to life-threatening medical crises. Pets that have access to the …

Hearing an otherwise normal and healthy dog begin to wheeze, sneeze or cough persistently for the first time can be puzzling, alarming, or a combination of both—particularly if one has never heard these sounds before. Normal, transitory reactions to …

While we may not like to think about it, nearly all dogs are infested with worms to one degree or another. Parasitic worms can affect a dog’s ability to absorb nutrients, damage the lining of its intestinal tract, and cause the dog to become very …

The word “anesthesia” comes from the Greek words meaning "lack of sensation."1 Anesthesia is achieved through the administration of drugs that depress nerve function. In general anesthesia, the patient is rendered completely unconscious for a proscri …

Bronchitis (also called tracheobronchitis) in dogs is a sudden or long term inflammation of the trachea and bronchial airways that can also extend into the lungs. It often occurs in dogs already affected by respiratory disease or a disorder of the lu …

The owners of companion animals have become significantly more knowledgeable and attentive regarding their pets’ health over the last few decades. In that time, a great deal has been learned—and shared by the veterinary medical community—as regards d …

There may be situations that arise where your dog may require general anesthesia or sedation for routine medical services or surgical procedures. In some cases, certain medical diagnostic procedures may also require anesthesia or sedation. Anesthesia …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is the most prevalent cause of neurologic disease of horses in the Americas (North, Central and South America). It is an extremely serious disease that can be difficult to diagnose due to the fact that its pre …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estradiol Cypionate (ECP) is a pro-drug ester of Estradiol, a naturally occurring hormone that circulates endogenously within …

Early and accurate diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare is critical in determining her reproductive viability during the breeding season. Once a mare has been determined to be pregnant, her embryonic growth and fetal development may be accurately monit …

Shivers is a neuromuscular syndrome in horses that has been recognized for centuries.1 At certain times, this condition has been called “Shivers” or “Shivering,” but both refer to the same syndrome. Interestingly, the literature states that throughou …

People who love horses tend to really love horses, and that goes triple for the horse owner who has decided to move forward with breeding their mare. Whether it’s an individual horse owner with a prized mare or a breeding operation of pretty much any …

The gestation period of the mare is less well-defined as compared to many other mammals. In other words, the window for parturition in the mare is much broader than that of other mammals. Mares are seasonally polyestrus, which means that their breedi …

In relation to horses, and performance horses in particular, the word “fatigue” is typically used to denote a horse’s inability to continue to perform at the desired level. This may manifest as slowing down, not being able to jump as high as is opti …

MonographsAcepromazineAcetazolamideAdrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)AltrenogestAmikacin SulfateAminophyllineAtipamezole HCLAzithromycinBetamethasoneBuserelin AcetateButorphanol TartrateCalcium LevulinateChondroitin SulfateChloramphenicolChlorpheni …

Chemical sedation and anesthesia are integral parts of veterinary medicine in the zoo setting. Even the most basic clinical examinations require sedation or anesthesia, since most patients in the zoo are either too nervous, too fast or too dangerous …

As discussed several times in this space, mares seasonally polyestrus, which means that their estrous cycles depend on the season. A mare will undergo regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during Winter. It is larg …

Many mares posses the bona fides that warrant breeding, such as good temperament, conformation, bloodlines and talent, but age is also a very important consideration. Despite the fact that it isn’t at all uncommon to find mares bred during their 20s, …

Therapeutic Class:Synthetic GnRH (Systemic Drug)General Notes: A synthetic nonapeptide analog of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone [LHRH], gonadorelin).Palliative treatment of advanced prostate cancer in hum …

Therapeutic Class: Mucopolysaccharide (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Parenteral, high viscosity mucopolysaccharide used for synovitis. Contraindications: None on label. Adverse effects: Local reactions possible. Different products have different d …

Therapeutic Class: Local Anti-infective (Dermatological Medication) General Notes: A nonmetallic element and topical anti-infective agent. In humans, iodine deficiency has been studied in connection with the occurrence of fibrocystic breast dis …

Horse owners and managers commonly report muscular fatigue of horses. Muscular fatigue can be caused by numerous disorders of several body systems, or it can be a function of (or a normal consequence of) prolonged exercise. The decreased ability of …

The management of large hoofstock in the wild or on preserves often necessitates live capture of specific individuals, and chemical immobilization is generally the most effective method for capturing these animals. Selective capture of deer and other …

Therapeutic Class:Antifungal Agent (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Parenteral-aminoglycoside antibiotic that is active against a variety of bacteria, predominantly gram-negative aerobic bacilli, but also many staphylococci.Because of potential adverse e …

How long is a horse pregnant? Well, the short answer is 10 to 12 months, or from approximately 326 days to 354 days (although there have been cases where gestation for a mare has gone as long as 365 to 370 days). Most mares only carry one foal per pr …

Therapeutic Class: Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agent (NSAID, Systemic Drug) General Notes: NSAID FDA-approved for topical use in horses for local control of joint pain & inflammation. Rare cases of esophagitis have been reported in pati …

Therapeutic Class: Alpha Agonist (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Direct vasodilator A derivative of guanabenz. The Molecular Weight of guanabenz is 231.08. Primarily indicated in conditions like hypertension. Used in racing and other performance …

Therapeutic Class: Injectable Hematinic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Injectable hematinic. Used with epoetin (EPO) in small animals. Contraindications: Do not give IV or SC. Known hypersensitivity to iron sucrose or iron dextran; presence …

Therapeutic Class: Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent used in horses, cats (short-term), and dogs. Cautions: GI ulceration or bleeding, hypoproteinemia, breeding animals (esp …

Therapeutic Class: Antifungal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Fungistatic antibiotic used primarily for ringworm and other dermatophytic infections; no effect on other fungi. Azole antifungal agents and terbinafine have largely supplanted …

Therapeutic Class: Antiparasitic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Used in dogs and cats to prevent heartworm disease by eliminating tissue stages of heartworm larvae and in cats to remove and control hookworms Used in cattle, horses, and sheep as …

Therapeutic Class:Dissociative General Anesthetic, NMDA-Receptor Antagonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Dissociative general anesthetic that also inhibits N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and may be adjunctively useful for controlling painContr …

While most animals ultimately do well with general anesthesia in the hands of a dedicated veterinarian, the fact is that general anesthesia does pose inherent risks, and this is the case in both animal and human medicine. Exotic animals in the wild, …

Therapeutic Class: Parenteral Muscle Relaxant (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Muscle relaxant (parenteral) adjunctive for anesthesia. Contraindications: None noted except concurrent use with physostigmine. Must be used with caution in induction …

Therapeutic Class:Antifungal, Azole (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Original imidazole oral antifungal historically used for systemic mycoses, but newer agents are generally preferred.Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity; some believe ketoconazole …

The capture, restraint and handling of free-roaming wild mammals involves potential dangers to both the animals and humans involved. As a result, this area of veterinary medicine was largely neglected until the middle of the 20th Century, when wildli …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estrogen therapy is currently being used widely by veterinarians treating intermittent upward patellar fixation (IUPF) in hors …

Clenbuterol HCl is a beta-2-adrenoceptor agonist; it is the only FDA-approved medication for horses with reversible bronchospasm and is often used to treat horses with inflammatory airway disease (IAD) and recurrent airway obstruction (RAO, commonly …

Clenbuterol hydrochloride is a β2-adrenergic agonist that is used in horses as a short-term bronchodilator. In the short-term, it is typically employed in the management of airway obstruction (eg, severe equine asthma [SEA], formerly known as recurre …

Xylazine hydrochloride, an α₂ class of adrenergic receptor, has long been used for sedation, anesthesia, muscle relaxation, and analgesia in animals such as horses, cattle and other non-human mammals. In horses however, adverse effects included muscl …

Standing sedation is a critical component in many key procedures done on-site and in the equine veterinary clinic. When choosing between the available sedation drugs, veterinarians must consider safety, cost effectiveness for the client and the pract …

Xylazine hydrochloride is used widely for the chemical restraint of exotic animals in biological research, surgical procedures and veterinary medicine. This non-narcotic drug can induce a sedative, analgesic and muscle relaxing effect by autonomic an …

Atipamezole hydrochloride is a synthetic α2-adrenergic antagonist. Its chemical name is 4-(2-ethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-yl)-1H-imidazole hydrochloride.1 It is indicated for the reversal of the sedative and analgesic effects of dexmedetomidine hydro …

Clenbuterol is a β2-adrenergic agonist that is used in horses as a short-term bronchodilator for the management of airway obstruction and for chronic breathing ailments in horses such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD, also known as "hea …

Long ago, veterinarians discovered that there are many surgical and other medical procedures which can be carried out in standing horses if the appropriate combinations of physical and chemical restraint are employed. The ability to perform procedure …

Strictly speaking, exotic animal medicine encompasses all zoo animals, wildlife, and nondomestic pets,1 and the modalities of treatment for zoo animals and wildlife are nearly identical. This of course includes physical as well as chemical immobiliza …

Estradiol Cypionate is a pro-drug ester of Estradiol, a naturally occurring hormone that circulates endogenously within the human body. Estradiol is the most potent form of all mammalian estrogenic steroids and acts as the major female sex hormone. A …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estradiol cypionate (ECP) is used to induce estrus in horses. It is also used by veterinarians to treat estrogen-responsive in …

Diclazuril is a triazinone antiprotozoal that is effective for treating infections caused by Isospora spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Eimeria spp. and has been used for treating coccidiosis.1 Initially, diclazuril was approved in Europe and in the U.S. …

Clenbuterol is a substituted phenylaminoethanol and a long-acting beta-2 adrenergic agonist with sympathomimetic activity. Pharmacologically, clenbuterol selectively binds to and activates beta-2 adrenergic receptors in bronchiolar smooth muscle, the …

Atipamezole, a synthetic drug with an imidazole structure, is a highly selective α2-adrenergic antagonist.1,2 Typically used to counteract the sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, and other effects produced by α2-adrenergic agonists (such as dexmedetomidin …

While there are inherent risks to deep sedation over general anesthesia in veterinary medicine,1 it is generally accepted that sedation carries less risks compared to general anesthesia in most cases. “While no clear statistics exist regarding the mo …

Veterinarians are regularly called upon to anesthetize a wide variety of exotic animals. For the purposes of this discussion, exotic animals are those non-domesticated species that are encountered in the field, in a zoo setting or those which have fo …

Therapeutic Class: Alpha-2 Adrenergic Agonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Alpha-2 sedative analgesic used primarily in horses. Contraindications: Heart block, severe coronary, cerebrovascular or respiratory disease, chronic kidney disease. C …

Therapeutic Class: B Vitamin (Systemic Drug) General Notes: B Vitamin necessary for nucleoprotein synthesis & normal erythropoiesis. Injectable or oral dosage forms. Folic acid deficiency may be seen in animals (especially cats) with proximal o …

Therapeutic Class: First-Generation Antihistamine (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Serotonin antagonist antihistamine used primarily as an appetite stimulant in cats; can be useful in management of serotonin-syndrome in small animals. Has also been …

Therapeutic Class: Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Glucocorticoid used most commonly in veterinary medicine as an inhaled aerosol. Has shown efficacy in treating feline asthma, dogs with chronic cough, & in horses for recurrent airwa …

Therapeutic Class:Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) (Systemic Drug) General Notes:A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant that is FDA-approved for use in dogs and used extra-label in cats for a variety of behavior d …

General anaesthetics and/or sedatives can take a number of hours to wear off and in some cases can cause patients to appear drowsy for more than a day. General anesthetic in healthy animals pose little risk, however, morbidity due to anesthesia does …

The use and study of wild animals frequently involves physical handling and in some instances the performance of surgical or other stressful procedures. With few exceptions, the requirements for domestic species are typically those of pain relief and …

Historically, the pharmacological immobilization of wild animals can be traced back to certain South American tribes who used curare-coated arrows to take down prey animals. Curare is an alkoloidal neurotoxin and muscle relaxant that competes with ac …

The broad term “anesthesia” typically covers simple immobilization and recovery via heavy sedation as well as general anesthesia, despite these two modalities being distinctly different. The latter involves central nervous system depression resulting …

Performing general anesthesia in the field can be impractical as well as stressful for wildlife managers, veterinarians and their support staff; even under ideal conditions, it can cause morbidity and mortality in animals.1 Thus, immobilization proto …

Field wildlife anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive (e.g., surgical) and noninvasive (e.g., blood collection, collaring, metabolic) procedures. Anesthesia for noninvasive procedures is commonly utilized for the safety of the investigators …

Chemical immobilization consists of the use of chemical anesthetic and/or sedation agents to subdue, restrain or immobilize wildlife. The reasons for employing chemical immobilization in the field generally include research studies, conservation and …

In the mid-20th Century, the chemical immobilization of exotic animals became of increasing necessity, but at that time, there were no protocols nor procedures in widespread use in the field of wildlife management. In the late 1950s, the first comple …

Therapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Macrolide antibiotic that may useful in the treatment of atypical mycobacterial infections or Helicobacter spp infections in dogs, cats, and ferrets and Rhodococcus …

Therapeutic Class: Histamine2 Blocker (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Prototype histamine2-blocker primarily used to reduce GI acid production. Newer H2-blockers (eg, ranitidine, famotidine) and other antacid agents (eg, omeprazole) may be more e …

Therapeutic Class: Reproductive Hormone (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Human glycoprotein hormone that mimics luteinizing hormone; used for a variety of theriogenology conditions in many species. Only for parenteral administration. Contraind …

Therapeutic Class: Nutritional Supplement (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Dietary supplement (not an approved drug) that may be useful as an adjunctive treatment for osteoarthritis or other painful conditions in horses, cats, & dogs; FLUTD in c …

Therapeutic Class:Skeletal Muscle Relaxant (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Direct-acting muscle relaxant.Primary indications: Horses: postanesthesia myositis/acute rhabdomyolysis; Dogs & Cats: functional urethral obstruction, potentially rhabdomyolysi …

Therapeutic Class: Antiprotozoal/Coccidiostat (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Coccidiostat Not FDA approved for lactating dairy animals or laying chickens. Not effective against adult coccidia; no effect on clinical coccidiosis; results in tr …

Therapeutic Class: Antihistamine (Systemic Drug)General Notes: An alkylamine antihistamine used primarily for its antihistamine and antipruritic effects; occasionally used for CNS depressant (sedative) effects. Contraindications: Hypersensiti …

Therapeutic Class: Sedative/Antiemetic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Prototype phenothiazine used primarily as an antiemetic; may be particularly useful in treating motion sickness in cats. Generally contraindicated in horses. Negligible analg …

Therapeutic Class:Broad-Spectrum Antibacterial (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Broad-spectrum antibiotic with good penetration to most tissues, including the eye, CNS, and prostate.Banned in food animals. Should be avoided or used with extreme caution i …

Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a neurologic disease in horses caused by infection with the protozoan Sarcocystis neurona. The parasite infects horses when they ingest the S. neurona organism in contaminated feed or water. The definitive …

Sarcocystis neurona is a protozoan apicomplexan parasite that causes the neurological disease equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses residing in the Americas.1 EPM is considered to be the most serious infectious neurologic disease of hors …

Therapeutic Class: Hormonal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Synthetic GnRH analog indicated to induce ovulation in estrual mares. It is especially useful in artificial insemination and estrus synchronization programs. Deslorelin acetat …

Therapeutic Class: Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Injectable, oral, and ophthalmic glucocorticoid A specific diagnosis is needed before glucocorticoids are administered, as they can mask disease. A course of treatment should b …

Therapeutic Class: Hormonal Agent (Estrogen) (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Natural estrogen salt used primarily to induce estrus; has been used as an abortifacient (rarely recommended today). Contraindications: Pregnancy (as it is abortifa …

Therapeutic Class: Antiparasitic Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Anthelmintic useful for reduction and removal of nematode and protozoal parasites in a variety of species. Adverse effects may include hypersensitization reactions caused …

Therapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic, Prokinetic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Macrolide antibiotic most commonly used (with rifampin) in foals; uncommonly used in dogs and cats. Prokinetic agent, at doses much lower than required for t …

Therapeutic Class:Tetracycline Antibiotic (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Oral & parenteral tetracycline antibiotic.Bone & teeth abnormalities are much less likely than with other tetracyclines, but drug should be used with caution in pregnant & young …

Therapeutic Class: Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Veterinary oral and injectable fluoroquinolone antibiotic effective against a variety of pathogens; not effective against anaerobes. In dogs, oral bioavailability is be …

Veterinarians first described the set of symptoms that would come to be known as equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in 1968.1 In the 1970s, researchers determined that this this devastating neurologic illness was caused by a protozoan, although …

Diclazuril is a triazinone antiprotozoal that is effective for treating equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) caused by Sarcocystis neurona. It is also used in treating infections caused by Isospora spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Eimeria spp,1 and a …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) continues to frustrate North American horse owners and veterinarians as one of the most common neurologic diseases in horses–and one of the most challenging to diagnose and treat.1 (EPM) is caused by the proto …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease of horses that affects the central nervous system. The primary causative agent for EPM is Sarcocystis neurona, a protozoan organism. The disease was described in the 1960s as segmental myelitis. B …

In wildlife medicine, it is often necessary to chemically restrain animals to perform even the most basic procedures. This is particularly true when working with large animals, particularly large carnivores. Therefore, it is important for veterinaria …

There are currently over 2,400 zoos in the United States, and all of them have animals that require routine veterinary care and, occasionally, more invasive medical procedures. The “first responders” and first line of defense in a zoo medical program …

There is little difference between indigenous or exotic animals in a zoo setting versus in the wild, save for the inherent stressors involved in being in captivity. Whether dealing with a fox or a tiger in a zoo setting, these animals will periodical …

The capture of free-ranging animals is an important foundation of wildlife research and preservation. Minimizing harm to wildlife, and especially mortality, is a vital ethical concern.Veterinarians and animal care specialists who are familiar with a …

Natural resource management and research programs conducted in natural areas often require the administration of pharmaceuticals to wildlife. Pharmaceuticals commonly used in wildlife programs include anesthetic agents, sedatives, antibiotics, vacci …

While inhalant anesthetics remain the “gold standard” for anesthesia in veterinary medicine, there are many circumstances in which the veterinarian will opt for sedation rather than general anesthesia, particularly when exotic species are consi …

Wildlife veterinarians are licensed animal health professionals who specialize in treating many different types of wildlife, including birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. They may work either in a veterinary office setting or in the field, but …

Wildlife medicine treats, rehabilitates and conserves wild animal species.1 This differs from wildlife rehabilitation, in which the focus is on individual animals and where the goal is to care for each animal until it can be released back into the wi …

DiclazurilTherapeutic Class:Antiprotozoal (Systemic Drug)General Notes: FDA-approved (in US) for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses & as a coccidiostat in broiler chickens.In small animals may be given with or without food. If animal …

Based on the available literature, the most favorable age group for breeding horses is with mares between the ages of 4 and 12. Once the mare surpasses the age of 12—and particularly if it’s a maiden mare—the conventional wisdom dictates that issues …

Acepromazine Therapeutic Class: Sedative General Notes: Required doses used may be lower than those listed on the approved label. Relatively long duration of action Negligible analgesic effects alone, but can potentiate effects o …

Acetazolamide Therapeutic Class: Diuretic (Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor) General Notes: Used for metabolic alkalosis or glaucoma (open angle glaucoma) in small animals and hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in horses. Contraindic …

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Therapeutic Class: Systemic Hormonal Diagnostic Agent (steroid hormone) General Notes: Stimulates cortisol release; used primarily to test for hyper- or hypoadrenocorticism (ACTH-stimulation test); use as …

Altrenogest Therapeutic Class: Progestin (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Progestational drug used in horses to suppress estrus or maintain pregnancy when progestin deficient; used in swine to synchronize estrus. Available commercially …

Amikacin SulfateTherapeutic Class: Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Parenteral aminoglycoside antibiotic with good activity against a variety of bacteria, predominantly gram-negative aerobic bacilli and staphylococci. Adverse effe …

Atipamezole HCLTherapeutic Class:Alpha-2 Adrenergic Antagonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Alpha-2 adrenergic antagonist; reverses the effects of agonists such as dexmedetomidine, medetomidine, and xylazine.No safety data on use in pregnant or lact …

AzithromycinTherapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Oral and parenteral macrolide antibiotics; potentially useful for treating a variety of bacterial infections in veterinary patients; not effective for treating …

BetamethasoneTherapeutic Class:Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Injectable glucocorticoid. Long acting; 25 to 40 times more potent than hydrocortisone; no mineralocorticoid activity.Primary use is intra-articular administration in horse …

Buserelin AcetateTherapeutic Class:Hormonal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Buserelin is a synthetic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue that is designed to alter hormone levels.Typically employed in order to induce ovulation in cycl …

Butorphanol TartrateTherapeutic Class:Opiate Partial Agonist (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Partial opiate agonist/antagonist used in a variety of species as an analgesic, premedication, antitussive, or antiemetic.Reasonably good analgesic for hors …

Calcium LevulinateTherapeutic Class:Mineral Supplement (Systemic)General Notes:The most soluble form of calcium Highest elemental calcium in ionic form Non - irritant form of calcium Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol)Helps in mobilization & absorption of …

AminophyllineTherapeutic Class:Bronchodilator (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Parenteral form of theophylline; bronchodilator drug with diuretic activity. Used short-term for bronchospasm and cardiogenic pulmonary edema. For oral use, see theophylli …

Researchers and local authorities frequently call upon veterinarians and animal control agents to help capture wild animals unharmed, to relocate animals unharmed in the course of their work, and to safely release animals from traps. It is theref …

Many horse owners have come to their equine veterinarian or favored expert with the same question: They have a wonderful mare that they're thinking about breeding, but they're afraid she might be too old. Perhaps she's always been healthy, but they d …

Many horse owners have entertained the notion of breeding their own prized mare. The idea of producing a foal with traits similar to its mother (or superior to its mother) can be very attractive. It is advisable that the novice horse breeder is a …

Given the wear and tear so many horses undergo as a result of their lifestyles (and, to be fair, ours), the field of veterinary medicine is continually searching for novel medications and new methods for pain relief in horses. "Managing pain in h …

On horse farms, the breeding shed is perhaps the most important place for accurate recordkeeping.1 Understanding as much as possible regarding the mare's breeding cycle can give horse owners and breeders an edge with regard to achieving their b …

Muscle strains resulting in soreness can occur in a muscle or any group of muscles in the horse. Apart from serious injury, arthritis or other degenerative joint diseases (DJDs) however, back soreness is one of the most prevalent chronic issues i …

Whether it's the manager of a breeding operation with numerous horses and a schedule to keep, or someone with a beloved mare they'd like to see pass on their genes for the next generation of equestrians in the family, the question of when a mare …

Unlike most of the domesticated animals with which humans interact (dogs, cats, birds and the like), horses are often called upon to perform very hard work. Due to the nature of the activities in which horses engage, and in which many people enjo …

What horse owners and breeding managers would give for a resource or utility that would allow them to precisely predict the day a mare will ovulate! While there are numerous online resources and charts that can reliably predict parturition based …

Gastric ulcers are common in horses and can affect any horse at any age. In fact, the prevalence of gastric ulcers in horses has been estimated at between 50% to 90%, depending on the populations surveyed and type of activity in which the horse i …

Despite their relatively long gestation period of 335 to 360 days, horses have the potential for fairly high reproductive performance.1 Understanding as much as possible regarding the mare's breeding cycle can give horse owners and breeders an ed …

Many procedures that are routinely accomplished in domestic animals with minimal restraint require anesthesia for the welfare and safety of both the zoo animal and veterinarian. Therefore, the chemical immobilization of wild and exotic animals in …

A working knowledge of the mare’s reproductive anatomy and physiology is essential in a horse breeding program. Familiarity with the mare's estrous cycle and the timing of events therein is equally important. These provide the basis on which all …

Even occasional equestrians—those who ride recreationally at the local stable or farm every now and then—can attest to the fact that running into a horse with a nervous disposition is extremely common. Sometimes, a horse's nervousness is apparent …

Due to the demands placed upon horses that have to work for a living, there is a wealth of information available regarding how to manipulate the mare's cycle in order to keep her out of heat.Typical signs that a mare is in season include holding …

The direct administration of anti-inflammatory drugs into joints to provide relief from discomfort remains a common practice in many sectors of the equine industry. Unfortunately, many of these medications are corticosteroids, which have become c …

Mares have a gestation period of about 340 days. Because of this relatively long pregnancy, they must become pregnant again shortly after giving birth in order to produce a foal at about the same time each year if this is desired by the owner or …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease that affects the central nervous system of horses and which is caused by the protozoal organism. The name given to the protozoan organism shown to be the primary causative agent for EPM is Sarc …

Mares cycle when days are long and there is abundant daylight during most of the day, meaning that under normal circumstances, they cycle in the Spring, Summer and Fall. Mares do not cycle in Winter when daylight is short; this is known as anestr …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease of the horse that affects the central nervous system. Equine obviously refers to the horse, protozoal refers to the type of organism that causes the disease and myeloencephalitis refers to tha …

Horse owners and breeders are continually on the lookout for ways to help improve their mares’ chances of becoming pregnant. One way that veterinarians are able to help is by administering prostaglandins.1 There are several forms of prostaglandin …

Since wild animals are, well... wild, this dictates that any manipulation requiring handling will also necessitate chemical immobilization. Wildlife veterinarians are not only required to possess the normal complement of skills and qualifications …

Generally speaking, the best time for mating of a mare and stallion is determined by several factors. These include the length of daylight (season), the daily temperature, the mare's general health, diet, the amount of rainfall, the climate, and …

Horse owners, managers and veterinarians are frequently faced with a need to to calm excitable horses or to provide relief from minor pain, or to facilitate minor or minimally-invasive procedures such as bronchoscopy, bronchoalveolar lavage, naso …

Mares are seasonally polyestrus; this means that they experience regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, with none occurring during the Winter. The typical mare cycles regularly between March and October, with each estrou …

There is a wide variety of pain relievers available for horses that can help alleviate pain and discomfort associated with injury or daily exercise, and enable easier, prompt treatment of the problem at hand.Methods of managing pain in horses ran …

During the fetal development of the mare itself, a pool of primordial follicles forms as ovarian tissue, and each follicle consists of prophase I oocytes surrounded with a single layer of flattened granulosa cells.1 By the time the mare reaches s …

The nature of wild animals dictates that any manipulation that requires handling will necessitate chemical immobilization. Anaesthetizing wild animals is typically done to mark an animal, to apply a radio transmitter, administer individual …

Since mares are seasonally polyestrus, they experience regular estrous cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during the Winter. These cycles are controlled by hormones, which respond to increases or decreases in daylight dura …

Altrenogest is a progestational drug used in horses to suppress estrus or maintain pregnancy when progestin deficient. It is also used in pigs to synchronize estrus, and may be used in dogs for luteal deficiency or to prevent premature delivery …

The ovarian follicle is a fluid-filled sac surrounded by a group of cells that protect and nourish the ovum (egg). There are thousands of follicles in a mare’s ovaries, but usually only one begins to develop during each estrous cycle.1 By Day 16 …

In the case of a performance mare—one which races, for example—the reasons for preventing such a horse from coming into heat may be self-evident. The sort of behaviors often exhibited by mares in estrus—stamping, vocalizing, nipping, tail-swis …

"Even the quietest of mares can turn into a proverbial fire-breathing dragon during her estrous cycle, which can make riding, training, competing, or handling these horses a challenge for any equestrian."1 Fortunately, over the years, veterinaria …

The fact that the horse is seasonally polyestrous makes this species a reproductive challenge for horsemen and equine practitioners. Mares will show several estrous cycles during the breeding season, assuming pregnancy does not terminate estrus. …

A significant segment of the equine industry is involved with the breeding and of mares and the management of their breeding cycle. Given the sheer numbers of animals involved, this means that the economic considerations make it absolutely necess …

The estrous cycle (or oestrus cycle) is the group of physiological changes that occur in sexually mature female mammals which are brought on by reproductive hormones. The changes facilitate fertility and reproduction.Horses (mares) are seasonally …