The sable (Hippotragus niger) is a barrel-chested antelope with a long face, short neck, and dark mane. They have ringed horns which rise vertically and curve backward. Both male and female sable have horns, although those of the females tend to be s …

The sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) is one of Africa’s most visually impressive antelopes. Its inclusion in the “horse antelope” genus (Hippotragini) is due to its compact, sturdy build, erect mane and thick neck.1 Sable bulls have glossy black co …

The sable (Hippotragus niger) is one of Africa’s most visually striking antelopes. Its compact, sturdy build, erect mane and thick neck has led to its inclusion in the “horse antelope” genus (Hippotragini).1 Both male and female sable have scimitar-s …

The African sable (Hippotragus niger) is an antelope that inhabits the savannah of East Africa below Kenya and into South Africa. They are members of the Hippotraginae family, due to their horse-like build and erect mane that is found on the neck of …

Research, conservation and management programs often require the capture and manipulation of antelope and other large hoofstock. The development of non- and minimally invasive procedures over the years have allowed researchers, zookeepers, veterinari …

Antelopes encompass a wide variety of horned mammals in the Families Bovidae and Antilocapridae. Antelope males and the females of some species have unbranched horns that attach to the frontal bones of the skull.Antelope vary widely in size; the roya …

The nyala is a member of the spiral-horned antelope genus that includes the kudu and eland. More slightly-built than these antelopes, the nyala is noted for its extreme sexual dimorphism and specialized habitat and feeding preferences that limit its …

Chemical immobilization events present risks to wildlife regardless of size or species, but these are more pronounced when dealing with larger species such as antelope and other hoofstock in the field. Associated risks include complications such as a …

Found across southern Africa, the nyala is a member of the spiral-horned antelope genus (Tragelaphus) that includes the kudu and eland. There are two subspecies of nyala: the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), and the lowland nyala(Tragelaphus aga …

The Nyala is a large antelope that inhabits the dense forest and thick bush in areas of southern Africa. Since they do not have the running ability of other African antelopes, they are uncomfortable in open spaces and most often seen near water holes …

The nyala is a member of the spiral-horned antelope genus that includes the kudu and eland. More slightly-built than these antelopes, the nyala is noted for its sexual dimorphism and specialized habitat and feeding preferences that limit its distribu …

The nyala is a large, slender antelope of that inhabits areas of southeastern Africa. It is a member of the spiral-horned antelope genus Tragelaphini (family Bovidae), which also includes the eland and the kudu. The nyala is noted for its sexual dimo …

The nyala is a large antelope that lives in the eastern part of southern Africa. The name “nyala” is the Swahili name for this antelope, which is derived from the Zulu word "inyala."1 The nyala consists of two subspecies, the lowland nyala (Tragelaph …

The chemical immobilization of kudu antelope is often necessary for a variety of reasons, including physiological study, research, and for the purposes of wildlife management. However, immobilizing drugs can adversely affect the cardiovascular …

The nyala is a spiral-horned antelope that is native to Southern Africa. It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus Tragelaphus and was first described in 1849 by George French Angas.1 The nyala’s coat is a rusty brown in females and juveniles, …

The nyala is found in the eastern part of southern Africa. There are two subspecies of nyala: The lowland nyala (Tragelaphus agasi), and the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). These antelope typically live near dense brush and on the fringes of fo …

The nyala is a large antelope that is found in the eastern part of southern Africa. Comprised of two subspecies, the lowland nyala (Tragelaphus agasi) and the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), these antelope live near areas of dense brush and on …

The kudu is one of the most magnificent among the African antelopes, largely due to the male’s large, spiraling horns. There are two species of kudu: The lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) and the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros). Female kudu …

The kudu is one of the largest African antelopes. There are two subspecies of kudu: the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis). The kudu is considered to be the most handsome of the tragelaphine antelopes, …

The capture of wild animals is a highly stressful event which has the potential to cause capture-induced complications, some of which can result in morbidity or mortality. There are a number of zoological societies, universities and other organizatio …

The nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) is a member of the spiral-horned antelope genus that includes the kudu and eland. More slightly-built than these antelopes, the nyala is noted for its extreme sexual dimorphism and specialized habitat and feeding prefe …

Research, zoo applications, conservation and management programs can require the capture and manipulation of kudu antelope. The development of non- and minimally invasive procedures have allowed researchers, veterinarians and management personnel to …

The kudu is one of the most stunning of the large African antelopes. The name “kudu” is derived from the Afrikaans language (The Afrikaans term “koedoe” being a combination the words for zebra and deer).1 There are two species of kudu; the lesser kud …

Chemical Immobilization: Human Safety and Accidental Exposure is one of the courses covering the principles of and techniques relating to chemical immobilization, pharmacology and drug delivery systems offered by the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alli …

Chemical Immobilization Pharmacology: Tranquilizers is one among many courses offered by the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (SDZWA) in safe capture chemical immobilization techniques. Such courses are typically taken by those who are intereste …

The kudu is one of the most spectacular of the African antelopes. It has been described as one of the most striking in the antelope family, largely due to the male’s large, spiraling horns. Female kudu have short horns, while the horns of the males g …

Many situations are encountered in the field and in zoos where the capture and restraint of wildlife is required. Improved understanding of the margins of safe capture, chemical immobilization, and handling of animals for research and management has …

Chemical immobilization is the chief method of capture for large wildlife species for the purposes of translocation, diagnostic testing or medical treatment. In zoos, farms, breeding facilities and free-ranging situations, chemical immobilization is …

The kudu is one of Africa’s largest antelopes. There are two subspecies of kudu: the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis). The greater kudu is second in size to Africa’s largest antelope, the eland. The …

Animal restraint and handling is integral to agriculture, the pet care industry, wildlife management, animal control, scientific and biological research, zoological societies and the veterinary industry. The scope of need and the reasons for restrain …

The nyala is a dense forest- and thick bush-dwelling antelope that is found in the eastern part of southern Africa. There are two subspecies of nyala: The lowland nyala (Tragelaphus agasi), and the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni).These antelope …

The San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (SDZWA) is among the zoological societies, universities and other organizations in the US that offer education in safe capture chemical immobilization techniques for those who are interested in pursuing careers in …

Capture and/or chemical immobilization events carry inherent risks to wildlife regardless of size or species, but these risks are often more pronounced when dealing with larger species, particularly in the field. Included in these risk factors is the …

The San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (SDZWA) is among several zoological societies, universities and organizations that offer education in safe capture chemical immobilization techniques for those who are interested in pursuing careers in veterinary m …

The kudu is one of the largest African antelopes. There are two subspecies: the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros),and the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis). The former is second in size to the eland, Africa’s largest antelope. The greater kudu …

Antelope comprise around 90 of the approximately 140 known species of the Bovidae family (e.g., sheep, goats, domesticated cattle). Antelope belong to the order Artiodactyla, the most distinctive feature being their even number of hooves. The kudu is …

Some zoological societies, universities and other organizations offer education in safe capture chemical immobilizationtechniques for those who are interested in careers in veterinary medicine, wildlife management, biology, zoology, animal control an …

The kudu is considered to be one of the most striking and majestic of the African antelopes, largely due to the male’s large, spiraling horns. There are two species of kudu: The lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) and the greater kudu (Tragelaphus str …

The San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (SDZWA) is among several organizations that offer education in safe capture chemical immobilization techniques for those who are interested in or who are pursuing careers in veterinary medicine, wildlife management …

The chemical immobilization of antelope can require extended periods of immobility in the captured animal. Hypothermia is an inherent risk to any animal undergoing chemical immobilization regardless of ambient temperature, and frostbite is an even gr …

Darts used to chemically immobilize wild animals come in a variety of sizes, volumes and configurations depending upon the remote delivery system being used. Dart guns are commonly available in rifle, shotgun and pistol models. Dart guns usually empl …

There are a number of zoological societies, universities and other organizations that offer education in safe capture chemical immobilization techniques for those who are interested in or who are pursuing careers in veterinary medicine, wildlife mana …

Since the remote capture of wild animals involves a substantial investment in time, effort and money, remote injection systems must be efficient and reliable.1 Precision, and therefore the capability of the operator, are of crucial importance, since …

Immobilization is the restriction of movement of all or part of an animal’s body by physical or chemical means. It is used to facilitate management of animals and is a common practice in many animal management procedures.Wildlife researchers often ne …

The kudu is considered one of the most spectacular of the African antelopes, largely due to its size and the male’s large, spiraling horns, which grow up to 1.8 meters. The greater kudu has a larger body size, with a height ranging between 1.3 and 1. …

Restraint is the use of manual, mechanical or chemical means to limit some or all of an animal's normal voluntary movement for the purposes of examination, collection of samples, drug administration, therapy, or manipulation.1 In general, restraint i …

There are several different methods for the delivery of immobilizing agents (drugs) to free-ranging and captive wild animals. Among these are hand held syringes, pole syringes and projected darts or syringes (remote delivery systems). The decision as …

The San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (SDZWA) is among the zoological societies that offer education in safe capture chemical immobilization techniques for those who are interested in or who are pursuing careers as a veterinarian, wildlife biologist, w …

The nature of wild and exotic animals nearly always necessitates the use of chemical immobilization for their handling and manipulation. Anesthetizing wild and exotic animals is typically done for the purposes of research, wildlife management, animal …

Kudu are comprised of two species of spiral-horned antelopes The larger greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) is second in size to the largest African antelope, the eland. Males have a beard and have the longest horns of any antelope, at 47–71 inch …

Capture myopathy (also called exertional capture myopathy or exertional rhabdomyolysis) is a non-infectious but life-threatening syndrome of wild or domestic animals in which muscle damage results from extreme exertion. It often occurs as a result of …

The kudu is a large African antelope that consists of two subspecies: the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis). The greater kudu is second in size to the eland, Africa’s largest antelope. Both subspecies …

There is no one drug nor class of drugs that are universally employed to tranquilize animals in veterinary medicine. Sedatives and tranquilizers play an important role in the veterinary practice, as well as in veterinary procedures involving wild ani …

In veterinary medicine, sedatives and tranquilizers are commonly used in animals to produce calmness, for chemical restraint, and as an adjunct to general anesthesia.1 In general, tranquilization reduces anxiety and induces a sense of tranquility wit …

Capture-recapture methods have a long history in the study of fish and wildlife populations. The simplest of these techniques is known as the two-sample model, which is used to estimate the unknown size of a population. The first sample provides indi …

Chemical restraint is often necessary when dealing with both domestic and exotic animals. In the former, this generally includes routine procedures on companion, work and performance large and small animals. In the latter, it includes both major and …

Zoos have been around for many centuries in various forms. Wall carvings found in Egypt and Mesopotamia suggest that aristocrats created menageries as early as 2500 BCE, and retained records of expeditions to distant lands where exotic animals were c …

The bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is an African antelope species found in the lowland forests from Sierra Leone in West Africa, through Central Africa and as far as southern Sudan in east Africa. Small populations also live in the montane (highland f …

The bongo is the largest and most colorful of the forest African antelopes. Males range in weight from 240 to 405 kilograms, while the females weigh between 210 and 235 kilograms. Female and juvenile bongo are chestnut red with darker legs. Males sta …

Using the Mark and Recapture (or “Capture-Mark-Recapture”) technique, biologists, researchers or wildlife management personnel use various methods to capture animals and subsequently mark them. The methods used for marking vary depending upon the spe …

Unlike earlier times in human history, the need for capturing wild animals today extends far beyond the need for clothing and food. Today, the capture of wild species for research and conservation projects is a concern that is widely shared globally. …

It is often necessary for biologists and wildlife managers to estimate the population size of wild animal species. Knowing whether population is increasing or decreasing is integral to conservation management, and essential in cases of threatened or …

The bongo antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is found in the lowland forests from Sierra Leone in West Africa, through Central Africa and as far as southern Sudan in east Africa. There are also small populations also living in the highland forests of K …

The Mark-Recapture technique is a method used to estimate the size of populations, and the population dynamics of wild animals when it is impractical (or impossible) to physically examine each individual animal. Sometimes called Capture-Mark-Recaptur …

When wildlife biologists require absolute estimates of a population size, they rely on alternative approaches to those based on a count of animals within a fixed unit of a habitat. One such approach is the mark recapture method (also referred to as “ …

The bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) the largest and most colorful of the African forest antelopes. It is also the third heaviest antelope, after the giant eland and common eland.1 The bongo has relatively short legs and hind legs that are higher and mo …

Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) are large, forest-living antelopes that are noted for their striking reddish-brown coats with 10-15 vertical white stripes and a thin mane along their back. There are two sub-species of bongo: the Lowland bongo (the West …

Estimating population size is a fundamental objective of many wildlife management programs. The conservation and management of wild animal populations requires knowledge of their dynamics and the associated environmental influences.1 Management often …

The chemical immobilization of bongo antelope in the field is associated with more risks than in a clinical or zoo setting. In most cases, these animals cannot be examined with regards to their health status beforehand and they often cannot receive a …

Wild animals are regularly captured for a variety of reasons, some of which include conservation efforts, breeding programs, relocation and research. In areas in which the habitats of humans and wild animals overlap, the reason for capture can become …

The bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is a large forest-living African antelope. Bongo are found in montane rain forests with dense undergrowth. They thrive at the forest edge and in new growth areas that occur after disturbances. Eastern (or mountain …

The practice of capturing wild animals is as old as human existence. Methods for animal capture predate recorded history, and were largely predicated upon communities’ need for food and clothing. Today, the reasons for the capture of wild species are …

Veterinarians are often called upon to help capture wild animals unharmed, to relocate animals and to safely release animals from traps during the course of their work. This may include veterinarians who are consulted by animal control personnel, vet …

Game animals are wild animals which are typically hunted for food or other resources, or for sport,1 and capture in this context means the restraint of such animals. The reasons which necessitate wildlife game vary widely, often depending on the geog …

Every year, millions of wild animals are captured as part of damage and disease control programs, population regulation activities, wildlife management efforts, and research studies.1 Many areas of animal capture—particularly those associated with pr …

The bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is an African antelope species characterized by prominent colors and long, spiral horns. Bongos have a reddish-brown coat with 10-15 vertical white stripes and a thin mane running along their back. Their legs have bl …

The Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is the largest of Africa’s forest antelopes. It is nocturnal, and has two subspecies: the western or lowland bongo, and the eastern or mountain bongo. The western bongo is considered threatened and the mountain bongo …

Wild animal trainers teach and train exotic animals in numerous settings, including scientific venues, zoos, aquariums, animal parks and other facilities. Additionally, some trainers find work in the entertainment industry, training animals as perfor …

Whether or not a wild animal needs to be chemically immobilized is generally a function of accessibility to the animal, the potential risks to the animal and its handlers associated with handling it, and the degree of invasiveness of the procedures i …

When discussing animal capture techniques, or more specifically, wildlife capture techniques, two types of capture are being referenced: physical capture and chemical immobilization. Physical capture broadly describes the use of devices such as traps …

Animal capture (or wildlife capture) is an event in which an animal is caught and restrained to varying degrees by humans. Reasons for wildlife captures vary widely: marking, collaring with tracking devices, disease surveillance, translocations relat …

Numerous wildlife capture and handling education programs currently exist, covering a wide array of areas. These can include, but are not limited to training for:Persons working in or preparing to work in commercial facilities that display and/or car …

Wild and exotic animals are far more susceptible to stress and injury during capture, handling and restraint than domestic species, even in a zoo setting, wherein they have often been largely acclimatized to captivity. Even relatively minor procedure …

The Bongo antelope belongs to the genus Tragelaphus, which includes the Sitatunga, Nyala, Bushbuck, Mountain Nyala, Lesser Kudu and Greater Kudu. Bongo are further catalogued into the two subspecies Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus, the lowland or Wes …

The bongo is a large forest-living antelope that lives in the lowland forests of West Africa to southern Sudan, with small populations occupying some highland forests of Kenya and the Congo. Bongo have a reddish-brown coat with 10-15 vertical white s …

Bongo antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus) are the largest and most colorful of the forest African antelopes. They are found mostly in the lowland forests of West Africa where they reside among the ground level shrubs and bushes, with smaller populations …

The bongo antelope is a large, forest-living antelope that lives in the lowland forests of Zaire and West Africa to southern Sudan, with small populations also living in the highland forests of Kenya and also in the Congo. Currently, all bongo are co …

There are many reasons that individuals opt for education in animal care and handling. Many areas have local health codes which require that all pet shops or businesses that sell, groom or board cats, dogs or other small animals must have someone wit …

Wildlife capture is essentially the use of systems and devices to capture wildlife species for a variety of purposes, including food, wildlife management, research, relocation and pest control. In some cases, this may also include the capture of cert …

Capture myopathy is a life-threatening condition that can occur in animals when muscle damage results from extreme exertion or prolonged struggle. It is often identified as exertional myopathy, overstraining disease and exertional rhabdomyolysis.1 Ca …

Wildlife veterinarians are licensed medical professionals who specialize in treating many different types of wildlife, including birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. They may work in a veterinary office setting, in the field or a combination of …

Caring for wild animals is different than caring for domesticated animals and companion animals (pets) and requires specialized training and experience. From a veterinary medical perspective, it is a challenge to diagnose and treat patients that not …

Wild animals are captured, handled and housed in a wide variety of contexts, including management, conservation and scientific research. Animals are often subjected to similar procedures and risks of compromised welfare from capture, anesthesia, hand …

The word “antelope” is used to describe a wide variety of horned mammals in the Families Bovidae and Antilocapridae. Antelope males (and the females of some species) have unbranched horns that attach to the frontal bones of the skull.Antelope vary wi …

Depending on the area in which they function, animal control officers can be called upon to interact with wildlife on a regular basis. In suburban, rural and semi-rural regions where various where the habitats of humans and wildlife species overlap, …

Research, zoo applications, conservation and management programs can require the capture and manipulation of antelope. The development of non- and minimally invasive procedures over the years have allowed researchers, veterinarians and management per …

Antelope are a diverse collection of ruminants of the families Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The bongo is a large forest-living antelope that lives in the lowland forests of Zaire and West Africa to southern Sudan. There are also small populations in t …

Wildlife managers, researchers and veterinarians in zoo settings sometimes need to immobilize antelope to mark them for identification, to provide veterinary treatment or to relocate them from dangerous or overpopulated locations. While the term “imm …

The chemical immobilization of antelope is often necessary for a variety of reasons, including physiological study, research, and for the purposes of wildlife management. However, immobilizing drugs can adversely affect the cardiovascular and respira …

Capture and/or chemical immobilization events carry inherent risks to wildlife regardless of size or species, but these risks are often more pronounced when dealing with larger species such as antelope and other hoofstock in the field. During capture …

Apart from traps, capture with nets and the mass-capture of herds of animals, chemical immobilization has become the chief method of capture for large wildlife species for the purposes of translocation, diagnostic testing or medical treatment. In zoo …

The chemical immobilization of antelope can require extended periods of immobility in the captured animal, particularly as regards antelope species in North America and other areas of the Northern Hemisphere. While hypothermia is an inherent risk to …

Antelope are very widespread animals, comprising around 90 of the approximately 140 known species of the Bovidaefamily (which includes sheep, goats, and domesticated cattle). Antelope belong to the order Artiodactyla, the most distinctive feature of …

Shock is a critical condition that is brought on by a sudden drop in blood flow throughout an animal’s body. Shock can be the result of a wide variety of conditions or circumstances, including extreme physical stress, trauma, disease, heatstroke, blo …

Bloat is a serious condition that is fatal if left untreated. In veterinary medicine, it is frequently seen in large dogs and is known as gastric dilatation-volvulus, or GDV, and can occur spontaneously. Bloat occurs when an animal's stomach fills wi …

Field immobilization of antelope is sometimes required for medical examination, blood sample collection, and animal identification, and the importance of performing such procedures for research and conservation projects is widely acknowledged.1 As th …

Cardiac arrest, or cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) is characterized by an abrupt, complete failure of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The subsequent lack of oxygen transport can quickly cause systemic cellular death from oxygen depletion.1 If l …

Capture myopathy (CM) is a serious condition that can occur in wild and domestic animals wherein muscle damage results from extreme exertion, struggle, or stress. It is also known as exertional myopathy, overstraining disease and exertional rhabdomyo …

“Antelope” is a common name that has been ascribed to various members of the family Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The pronghorn antelope, Antilocapra americana, is the only member in the Antilocapridae family.1 Antelope males and the females of some sp …

Aspiration is described as when a foreign substance enters the airway or lungs; this can apply to food, liquid, or other materials. Aspiration can give rise to serious health problems, such as pneumonia. Aspiration can occur when a human or animal ha …

Vomiting is one of the more common post-sedation and post-anesthesia complications in both domestic and exotic animals. Vomiting once or twice after a surgical procedure can be considered normal however, if the vomiting continues, it can be a sign of …

Managing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) often requires the live capture of individual animals, and chemical immobilization often is the most effective method of capture.1 Throughout the modern history of the chemical immobilization of wil …

Gastric ulcers (often referenced as gastroduodenal ulcer disease) in dogs refers to ulcers found in the dog's stomach and/or the first section of the small intestine, also known as the duodenum.1 The gastric mucosal barrier in the dog’s digestive tra …

One of the most challenging aspects of wildlife veterinary medicine is the process of determining the correct dosages for wildlife species when providing chemical immobilization. Chemical immobilization is a form of animal restraint in which medicati …

Wildlife practice is an extremely specialized area of veterinary medicine, and restraint nearly always requires the use of anesthetic drugs to allow a safe and efficient immobilization before the practitioner proceeds with plans for the targeted indi …

Mink are members of the weasel family and are native to the Northern Hemisphere. Historically, both the American mink (Neovison vison) and the European mink (Mustela lutreola) have been valued for their fur. The American mink is a staple of the fur i …

Anesthesia is an integral part of exotic animal medicine, whether in the field, or in research or zoo settings. Even the most basic procedures typically require sedation or anesthesia, since most animals are either too shy, fast, or dangerous to hand …

The family Mustelidae comprises stoats, polecats, mink, fishers, wolverines, weasels, martens, badgers, and otters, and is the largest family within the order Carnivora. Mustelids have a global distribution, with members found on every continent exce …

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are the smallest members of the North American deer family, and are found from southern Canada to South America. Favoring wooded areas, the home range of a White-tailed deer is usually less than one square m …

There are numerous drug and drug combinations that are used for the remote immobilization of wildlife species, but only a few have become standards amongst veterinarians and wildlife managers. For years, many large wildlife species have been remotely …

In recent decades, conservation efforts and the endangered status of certain wildlife species have become more prominent among wildlife biologists and lay persons alike. Innumerable conservation efforts focused on wild animals (including mammals and …

The chemical immobilization of wild animals is a form of veterinary anesthesia conducted under difficult circumstances.1Historically, chemical immobilization can be traced back to certain tribes from South America who used curare-coated arrows in the …

These days, a cursory web search will show that there are literally hundreds of safe capture chemical immobilization courses being offered in the U.S. alone. Typically sponsored by universities, zoos and wildlife management bureaus, these courses off …

Field wildlife anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures. Typically, anesthesia for noninvasive procedures is utilized for the safety of the handlers and animals. Further, anesthesia and analgesia are crucial componen …

Capturing and chemically immobilizing a bear can be the most traumatic incident of its life, thus, it is extremely important to justify all capture and trapping procedures. Anyone involved in the chemical immobilization of bear or any wildlife should …

An interest in llamas and alpacas as pets, breeding and pack animals has led to increased demand for veterinary services for these animals. Despite having certain unique species characteristics regarding anesthesia, many of the principles and techniq …

The improvement of chemical capture protocols and procedures is an important part of wildlife conservation and animal welfare, in order to minimize distress and the risk of morbidity and mortality in these animals. Throughout history, people have bee …

Chemical restraint (with or without local anesthesia) has long been used to perform diagnostic or minor surgical procedures in small ruminants. However, anesthetic and analgesic techniques are required when specific diagnostic procedures and painful …

Milk has been an important food source for humans since the domestication of dairy animals began. It is a common component of the animal-derived food products that comprise many diets. Methods to ensure the safety and quality of goat milk and milk pr …

Ovine foot rot is a costly disease in the sheep industry, with producers losing time and money each year in their attempts to control this condition in their flocks. When foot rot becomes a problem on a farm, it takes a great deal of effort to contro …

Field anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures on wild animals. For invasive procedures, the potential for immediate and lasting pain must be addressed and appropriate analgesia provided. In situations where the mini …

Many procedures that are regularly carried out in domestic animals with minimal restraint require sedation or anesthesia for the safety of the exotic animal, the veterinarian and support staff. This is true whether the exotic animal is captive (in a …

Moose (Alces alces) is the largest member of the deer family; they are found in the northern regions of Eurasia and North America. While the Eurasian and American moose are very similar, the American moose is somewhat larger and is considered by some …

The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the most widely distributed large wild cat, and occupies a broad variety of habitats, ranging from rainforests to deserts and from the fringes of urban areas to remote mountain ranges.1 The Indian subspecies, Panthera …

The sedation and immobilization of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a tricky proposition due to a combination of problems often encountered in such procedures that can result in mortality or morbidity to the animal.1 Giraffes have a unique anatomy …

Goats can suffer from numerous diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites as well as non-infectious agents. Diagnosing disease conditions in the goat can be difficult, since many diseases manifest similarly in this species. However, the progress …

Diseases of farm and feedlot animals regularly threaten the lives of millions of livestock. These animals are relied upon in the food supply, meaning that massive losses can lead to widespread food shortages. In March of 2018, 73,500 chickens were cu …

Elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) are the largest subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus), found in North America and in the high mountains of Central Asia. Also called wapiti, elk are members of the deer family, Cervidae (order Artiodactyla). Recent g …

The mountain lion (Puma concolor) is the largest wild felid in the North American continent. It is also frequently known as the cougar or puma. Mountain lions are obligate carnivores that can be found in varied habitats in the U.S. and Canada, althou …

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are approximately twice as the size of the average housecat. They have long legs, large paws, and tufted ears similar to those of their larger relative, the Canada lynx. Bobcats are brown or brownish-red with a white belly and a …

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is found throughout the Arctic region. These animals travel long distances over vast expanses, often on drifting oceanic ice floes, searching for seals, their primary prey. Polar bears are stocky in build, with a long …

Veterinarians generally agree that the cat is truly a “different breed of cat” when it comes to responses to disease and medical treatment in the small animal clinic. Dogs and cats are most often seen in the small animal veterinary practice, but asid …

Xylazine (xylazine HCl) is an α-2 adrenergic agonist that is commonly used for its sedative and analgesic properties in a variety of species.1 Xylazine is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in dogs, cats, horses, deer, an …

Capturing, immobilizing, and fitting for radio collars are common practices in studies of large mammals. However, many species of large mammals exist in remnant or “island-like” populations in which there is little or no gene flow.1 Concern amongst r …

The iconic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is one of the most highly-specialized and effective hunters in nature. As recently as 1900, it had a vast geographic range that spanned Africa, the Middle East and across Asia into the Indian subcontinent.1 Durin …

Nondomestic ruminants such as deer can be encountered in the wild, on exotic animal or cervid ranches on breeding farms, and in zoos or petting farms. In order to handle or treat species of deer, most require manual restraint using a hydraulic squeez …

Worms and other gastrointestinal parasites are very common in cats, and are among the most detrimental things that can impact a cat's overall health. Not only can certain worms eat away at the intestines, but they can also poach vital nutrients from …

Coccidia is a protozoan that infects the intestinal tract of cats and other species, causing coccidiosis. In cats, most coccidia encountered are of the genus called Isospora. Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta are the most common species of coccidia …

Coccidiosis is an intestinal tract infection caused by one-celled protozoa called coccidia. In cats, most coccidia encountered are of the genus called Isospora, with Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta being the most common species of coccidia affect …

Attention to detail in preparing for the capture or immobilization of deer may be the greatest predictor of a successful outcome. Anxiety, anticipation of danger, unfamiliar environments and crowded conditions can cause stress in animals and are usua …

Acute pain in cats is typically related to surgical procedures or following trauma. As unlikely as it may seem due to their legendary agility, cats do occasionally suffer from injuries due to misadventure, including falls. In the case of surgeries, p …

There has been an increased interest in the captive propagation of elephants and other large exotic animals in recent years, largely for reasons of conservation. As a result, more and more zoos and wildlife preserves are keeping, or anticipate holdin …

Cats tend to be different in their responses to injury, disease and medical treatment as compared to dogs or other animals typically seen in the small animal clinic.1 In human patients, a clinician can simply ask the patient how much pain he or she i …

Technically, pain is “an aversive sensory experience that causes response with protective motor actions, resulting in learned avoidance of the experience.”1 Adaptive pain is typically responsive to medication, whereas maladaptive pain (a spontaneous …

Immobilization is the imposed restriction of movement of all or part of an animal’s body, either by physical or chemical means. Typically, immobilization is used to facilitate management of some form (e.g., health, safety, conservation), and it …

Gastrointestinal parasites are common in cats, with prevalence rates as high as 45% in some populations.1 Several types of gastrointestinal parasites can infect cats of any age, although infestations in kittens can be far more serious than in adult c …

Distressing though it may be to cat owners, it is highly likely that at some point during every cat’s life, he or she will almost certainly be affected by worms or other gastrointestinal parasites. There are around eight different types of intestinal …

Gastric ulcers (or gastroduodenal ulcer disease) in dogs are lesions that form in the lining of the stomach or upper gastrointestinal tract. These occur when the surface layer (mucosal barrier) that lines the stomach becomes compromised. Many disease …

As with humans, our dogs may at some point require anesthesia for a surgery or some other procedure. Puppies typically receive anesthesia when they are spayed or neutered, and even procedures as simple as dentistries do require that a dog be anesthet …

Gastritis is a term used to describe inflammation of the lining of the stomach, with the most common sign associated with gastritis being vomiting. In cats, the signs may appear mild, or they can be debilitating or even life threatening, requiring ho …

While many lifelong dog owners have never experienced their beloved canines suffering from gastric ulcers (stomach or intestinal ulcers), this malady is quite common among dogs. Also called gastroduodenal ulcer disease, this syndrome applies to ulcer …

The peril of intestinal parasites is a serious concern for dog owners. Parasites and worms can cause a variety of ailments which range from minor gastrointestinal upset, all the way up to life-threatening medical crises. Pets that have access to the …

While we may not like to think about it, nearly all dogs are infested with worms to one degree or another. Parasitic worms can affect a dog’s ability to absorb nutrients, damage the lining of its intestinal tract, and cause the dog to become very …

Hearing an otherwise normal and healthy dog begin to wheeze, sneeze or cough persistently for the first time can be puzzling, alarming, or a combination of both—particularly if one has never heard these sounds before. Normal, transitory reactions to …

The word “anesthesia” comes from the Greek words meaning "lack of sensation."1 Anesthesia is achieved through the administration of drugs that depress nerve function. In general anesthesia, the patient is rendered completely unconscious for a proscri …

Bronchitis (also called tracheobronchitis) in dogs is a sudden or long term inflammation of the trachea and bronchial airways that can also extend into the lungs. It often occurs in dogs already affected by respiratory disease or a disorder of the lu …

The owners of companion animals have become significantly more knowledgeable and attentive regarding their pets’ health over the last few decades. In that time, a great deal has been learned—and shared by the veterinary medical community—as regards d …

There may be situations that arise where your dog may require general anesthesia or sedation for routine medical services or surgical procedures. In some cases, certain medical diagnostic procedures may also require anesthesia or sedation. Anesthesia …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is the most prevalent cause of neurologic disease of horses in the Americas (North, Central and South America). It is an extremely serious disease that can be difficult to diagnose due to the fact that its pre …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estradiol Cypionate (ECP) is a pro-drug ester of Estradiol, a naturally occurring hormone that circulates endogenously within …

Early and accurate diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare is critical in determining her reproductive viability during the breeding season. Once a mare has been determined to be pregnant, her embryonic growth and fetal development may be accurately monit …

Shivers is a neuromuscular syndrome in horses that has been recognized for centuries.1 At certain times, this condition has been called “Shivers” or “Shivering,” but both refer to the same syndrome. Interestingly, the literature states that throughou …

People who love horses tend to really love horses, and that goes triple for the horse owner who has decided to move forward with breeding their mare. Whether it’s an individual horse owner with a prized mare or a breeding operation of pretty much any …

The gestation period of the mare is less well-defined as compared to many other mammals. In other words, the window for parturition in the mare is much broader than that of other mammals. Mares are seasonally polyestrus, which means that their breedi …

In relation to horses, and performance horses in particular, the word “fatigue” is typically used to denote a horse’s inability to continue to perform at the desired level. This may manifest as slowing down, not being able to jump as high as is opti …

MonographsAcepromazineAcetazolamideAdrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)AltrenogestAmikacin SulfateAminophyllineAtipamezole HCLAzithromycinBetamethasoneBuserelin AcetateButorphanol TartrateCalcium LevulinateChondroitin SulfateChloramphenicolChlorpheni …

Chemical sedation and anesthesia are integral parts of veterinary medicine in the zoo setting. Even the most basic clinical examinations require sedation or anesthesia, since most patients in the zoo are either too nervous, too fast or too dangerous …

As discussed several times in this space, mares seasonally polyestrus, which means that their estrous cycles depend on the season. A mare will undergo regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during Winter. It is larg …

Many mares posses the bona fides that warrant breeding, such as good temperament, conformation, bloodlines and talent, but age is also a very important consideration. Despite the fact that it isn’t at all uncommon to find mares bred during their 20s, …

Therapeutic Class:Synthetic GnRH (Systemic Drug)General Notes: A synthetic nonapeptide analog of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone [LHRH], gonadorelin).Palliative treatment of advanced prostate cancer in hum …

Therapeutic Class: Mucopolysaccharide (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Parenteral, high viscosity mucopolysaccharide used for synovitis. Contraindications: None on label. Adverse effects: Local reactions possible. Different products have different d …

Therapeutic Class: Local Anti-infective (Dermatological Medication) General Notes: A nonmetallic element and topical anti-infective agent. In humans, iodine deficiency has been studied in connection with the occurrence of fibrocystic breast dis …

Horse owners and managers commonly report muscular fatigue of horses. Muscular fatigue can be caused by numerous disorders of several body systems, or it can be a function of (or a normal consequence of) prolonged exercise. The decreased ability of …

The management of large hoofstock in the wild or on preserves often necessitates live capture of specific individuals, and chemical immobilization is generally the most effective method for capturing these animals. Selective capture of deer and other …

Therapeutic Class:Antifungal Agent (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Parenteral-aminoglycoside antibiotic that is active against a variety of bacteria, predominantly gram-negative aerobic bacilli, but also many staphylococci.Because of potential adverse e …

How long is a horse pregnant? Well, the short answer is 10 to 12 months, or from approximately 326 days to 354 days (although there have been cases where gestation for a mare has gone as long as 365 to 370 days). Most mares only carry one foal per pr …

Therapeutic Class: Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agent (NSAID, Systemic Drug) General Notes: NSAID FDA-approved for topical use in horses for local control of joint pain & inflammation. Rare cases of esophagitis have been reported in pati …

Therapeutic Class: Alpha Agonist (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Direct vasodilator A derivative of guanabenz. The Molecular Weight of guanabenz is 231.08. Primarily indicated in conditions like hypertension. Used in racing and other performance …

Therapeutic Class: Injectable Hematinic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Injectable hematinic. Used with epoetin (EPO) in small animals. Contraindications: Do not give IV or SC. Known hypersensitivity to iron sucrose or iron dextran; presence …

Therapeutic Class: Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent used in horses, cats (short-term), and dogs. Cautions: GI ulceration or bleeding, hypoproteinemia, breeding animals (esp …

Therapeutic Class: Antifungal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Fungistatic antibiotic used primarily for ringworm and other dermatophytic infections; no effect on other fungi. Azole antifungal agents and terbinafine have largely supplanted …

Therapeutic Class: Antiparasitic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Used in dogs and cats to prevent heartworm disease by eliminating tissue stages of heartworm larvae and in cats to remove and control hookworms Used in cattle, horses, and sheep as …

Therapeutic Class:Dissociative General Anesthetic, NMDA-Receptor Antagonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Dissociative general anesthetic that also inhibits N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and may be adjunctively useful for controlling painContr …

While most animals ultimately do well with general anesthesia in the hands of a dedicated veterinarian, the fact is that general anesthesia does pose inherent risks, and this is the case in both animal and human medicine. Exotic animals in the wild, …

Therapeutic Class: Parenteral Muscle Relaxant (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Muscle relaxant (parenteral) adjunctive for anesthesia. Contraindications: None noted except concurrent use with physostigmine. Must be used with caution in induction …

Therapeutic Class:Antifungal, Azole (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Original imidazole oral antifungal historically used for systemic mycoses, but newer agents are generally preferred.Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity; some believe ketoconazole …

The capture, restraint and handling of free-roaming wild mammals involves potential dangers to both the animals and humans involved. As a result, this area of veterinary medicine was largely neglected until the middle of the 20th Century, when wildli …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estrogen therapy is currently being used widely by veterinarians treating intermittent upward patellar fixation (IUPF) in hors …

Clenbuterol HCl is a beta-2-adrenoceptor agonist; it is the only FDA-approved medication for horses with reversible bronchospasm and is often used to treat horses with inflammatory airway disease (IAD) and recurrent airway obstruction (RAO, commonly …

Clenbuterol hydrochloride is a β2-adrenergic agonist that is used in horses as a short-term bronchodilator. In the short-term, it is typically employed in the management of airway obstruction (eg, severe equine asthma [SEA], formerly known as recurre …