Atipamezole, a synthetic drug with an imidazole structure, is a highly selective α2-adrenergic antagonist.1,2 Typically used to counteract the sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, and other effects produced by α2-adrenergic agonists (such as dexmedetomidin …

While there are inherent risks to deep sedation over general anesthesia in veterinary medicine,1 it is generally accepted that sedation carries less risks compared to general anesthesia in most cases. “While no clear statistics exist regarding the mo …

Veterinarians are regularly called upon to anesthetize a wide variety of exotic animals. For the purposes of this discussion, exotic animals are those non-domesticated species that are encountered in the field, in a zoo setting or those which have fo …

Therapeutic Class:Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) (Systemic Drug) General Notes: A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant that is FDA-approved for use in dogs and used extra-label in cats for a variety of behavior …

Therapeutic Class: Alpha-2 Adrenergic Agonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Alpha-2 sedative analgesic used primarily in horses. Contraindications: Heart block, severe coronary, cerebrovascular or respiratory disease, chronic kidney disease. C …

Therapeutic Class: B Vitamin (Systemic Drug) General Notes: B Vitamin necessary for nucleoprotein synthesis & normal erythropoiesis. Injectable or oral dosage forms. Folic acid deficiency may be seen in animals (especially cats) with proximal o …

Therapeutic Class: Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Glucocorticoid used most commonly in veterinary medicine as an inhaled aerosol. Has shown efficacy in treating feline asthma, dogs with chronic cough, & in horses for recurrent a …

Therapeutic Class: First-Generation Antihistamine (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Serotonin antagonist antihistamine used primarily as an appetite stimulant in cats; can be useful in management of serotonin-syndrome in small animals. Has also been …

General anaesthetics and/or sedatives can take a number of hours to wear off and in some cases can cause patients to appear drowsy for more than a day. General anesthetic in healthy animals pose little risk, however, morbidity due to anesthesia does …

Performing general anesthesia in the field can be impractical as well as stressful for wildlife managers, veterinarians and their support staff; even under ideal conditions, it can cause morbidity and mortality in animals.1 Thus, immobilization proto …

The use and study of wild animals frequently involves physical handling and in some instances the performance of surgical or other stressful procedures. With few exceptions, the requirements for domestic species are typically those of pain relief and …

Historically, the pharmacological immobilization of wild animals can be traced back to certain South American tribes who used curare-coated arrows to take down prey animals. Curare is an alkoloidal neurotoxin and muscle relaxant that competes with ac …

The broad term “anesthesia” typically covers simple immobilization and recovery via heavy sedation as well as general anesthesia, despite these two modalities being distinctly different. The latter involves central nervous system depression resulting …

Field wildlife anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive (e.g., surgical) and noninvasive (e.g., blood collection, collaring, metabolic) procedures. Anesthesia for noninvasive procedures is commonly utilized for the safety of the investigators …

Chemical immobilization consists of the use of chemical anesthetic and/or sedation agents to subdue, restrain or immobilize wildlife. The reasons for employing chemical immobilization in the field generally include research studies, conservation and …

Therapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Macrolide antibiotic that may useful in the treatment of atypical mycobacterial infections or Helicobacter spp infections in dogs, cats, and ferrets and Rhodococcus …

Therapeutic Class: Histamine2 Blocker (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Prototype histamine2-blocker primarily used to reduce GI acid production. Newer H2-blockers (eg, ranitidine, famotidine) and other antacid agents (eg, omeprazole) may be more e …

Therapeutic Class: Reproductive Hormone (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Human glycoprotein hormone that mimics luteinizing hormone; used for a variety of theriogenology conditions in many species. Only for parenteral administration. Contraind …

Therapeutic Class: Nutritional Supplement (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Dietary supplement (not an approved drug) that may be useful as an adjunctive treatment for osteoarthritis or other painful conditions in horses, cats, & dogs; FLUTD in c …

In the mid-20th Century, the chemical immobilization of exotic animals became of increasing necessity, but at that time, there were no protocols nor procedures in widespread use in the field of wildlife management. In the late 1950s, the first comple …

Therapeutic Class:Skeletal Muscle Relaxant (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Direct-acting muscle relaxant.Primary indications: Horses: postanesthesia myositis/acute rhabdomyolysis; Dogs & Cats: functional urethral obstruction, potentially rhabdomyolysi …

Therapeutic Class: Antiprotozoal/Coccidiostat (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Coccidiostat Not FDA approved for lactating dairy animals or laying chickens. Not effective against adult coccidia; no effect on clinical coccidiosis; results in treating …

Therapeutic Class: Antihistamine (Systemic Drug)General Notes: An alkylamine antihistamine used primarily for its antihistamine and antipruritic effects; occasionally used for CNS depressant (sedative) effects. Contraindications: Hypersensiti …

Therapeutic Class: Sedative/Antiemetic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Prototype phenothiazine used primarily as an antiemetic; may be particularly useful in treating motion sickness in cats. Generally contraindicated in horses. Negligible …

Therapeutic Class:Broad-Spectrum Antibacterial (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Broad-spectrum antibiotic with good penetration to most tissues, including the eye, CNS, and prostate.Banned in food animals. Should be avoided or used with extreme caution i …

Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a neurologic disease in horses caused by infection with the protozoan Sarcocystis neurona. The parasite infects horses when they ingest the S. neurona organism in contaminated feed or water. The definitive …

Estradiol Cypionate is a pro-drug ester of Estradiol, a naturally occurring hormone that circulates endogenously within the human body. Estradiol is the most potent form of all mammalian estrogenic steroids and acts as the major female sex hormone. A …

Sarcocystis neurona is a protozoan apicomplexan parasite that causes the neurological disease equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses residing in the Americas.1 EPM is considered to be the most serious infectious neurologic disease of hors …

Therapeutic Class: Hormonal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Synthetic GnRH analog indicated to induce ovulation in estrual mares. It is especially useful in artificial insemination and estrus synchronization programs. Deslorelin acetat …

Therapeutic Class: Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Injectable, oral, and ophthalmic glucocorticoid A specific diagnosis is needed before glucocorticoids are administered, as they can mask disease. A course of treatment should b …

Therapeutic Class: Antiparasitic Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Anthelmintic useful for reduction and removal of nematode and protozoal parasites in a variety of species. Adverse effects may include hypersensitization reactions caused by …

Therapeutic Class: Hormonal Agent (Estrogen) (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Natural estrogen salt used primarily to induce estrus; has been used as an abortifacient (rarely recommended today). Contraindications: Pregnancy (as it is abortifa …

Therapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic, Prokinetic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Macrolide antibiotic most commonly used (with rifampin) in foals; uncommonly used in dogs and cats. Prokinetic agent, at doses much lower than required for t …

Therapeutic Class:Tetracycline Antibiotic (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Oral & parenteral tetracycline antibiotic.Bone & teeth abnormalities are much less likely than with other tetracyclines, but drug should be used with caution in pregnant & young …

Therapeutic Class: Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Veterinary oral and injectable fluoroquinolone antibiotic effective against a variety of pathogens; not effective against anaerobes. In dogs, oral bioavailability is be …

Veterinarians first described the set of symptoms that would come to be known as equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in 1968.1 In the 1970s, researchers determined that this this devastating neurologic illness was caused by a protozoan, although …

Diclazuril is a triazinone antiprotozoal that is effective for treating equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) caused by Sarcocystis neurona. It is also used in treating infections caused by Isospora spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Eimeria spp,1 and a …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) continues to frustrate North American horse owners and veterinarians as one of the most common neurologic diseases in horses–and one of the most challenging to diagnose and treat.1 (EPM) is caused by the proto …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease of horses that affects the central nervous system. The primary causative agent for EPM is Sarcocystis neurona, a protozoan organism. The disease was described in the 1960s as segmental myelitis. B …

In wildlife medicine, it is often necessary to chemically restrain animals to perform even the most basic procedures. This is particularly true when working with large animals, particularly large carnivores. Therefore, it is important for veterinaria …

There are currently over 2,400 zoos in the United States, and all of them have animals that require routine veterinary care and, occasionally, more invasive medical procedures. The “first responders” and first line of defense in a zoo medical program …

There is little difference between indigenous or exotic animals in a zoo setting versus in the wild, save for the inherent stressors involved in being in captivity. Whether dealing with a fox or a tiger in a zoo setting, these animals will periodical …

The capture of free-ranging animals is an important foundation of wildlife research and preservation. Minimizing harm to wildlife, and especially mortality, is a vital ethical concern.Veterinarians and animal care specialists who are familiar with a …

Natural resource management and research programs conducted in natural areas often require the administration of pharmaceuticals to wildlife. Pharmaceuticals commonly used in wildlife programs include anesthetic agents, sedatives, antibiotics, vacci …

While inhalant anesthetics remain the “gold standard” for anesthesia in veterinary medicine, there are many circumstances in which the veterinarian will opt for sedation rather than general anesthesia, particularly when exotic species are consi …

Wildlife veterinarians are licensed animal health professionals who specialize in treating many different types of wildlife, including birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. They may work either in a veterinary office setting or in the field, but …

Wildlife medicine treats, rehabilitates and conserves wild animal species.1 This differs from wildlife rehabilitation, in which the focus is on individual animals and where the goal is to care for each animal until it can be released back into the wi …

DiclazurilTherapeutic Class:Antiprotozoal (Systemic Drug)General Notes: FDA-approved (in US) for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses & as a coccidiostat in broiler chickens.In small animals may be given with or without food. If animal …

Based on the available literature, the most favorable age group for breeding horses is with mares between the ages of 4 and 12. Once the mare surpasses the age of 12—and particularly if it’s a maiden mare—the conventional wisdom dictates that issues …

Acepromazine Therapeutic Class: Sedative General Notes: Required doses used may be lower than those listed on the approved label. Relatively long duration of action Negligible analgesic effects alone, but can potentiate effects o …

Acetazolamide Therapeutic Class: Diuretic (Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor) General Notes: Used for metabolic alkalosis or glaucoma (open angle glaucoma) in small animals and hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in horses. Contraindic …

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Therapeutic Class: Systemic Hormonal Diagnostic Agent (steroid hormone) General Notes: Stimulates cortisol release; used primarily to test for hyper- or hypoadrenocorticism (ACTH-stimulation test); use as …

Altrenogest Therapeutic Class: Progestin (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Progestational drug used in horses to suppress estrus or maintain pregnancy when progestin deficient; used in swine to synchronize estrus. Available commercially …

Amikacin SulfateTherapeutic Class: Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Parenteral aminoglycoside antibiotic with good activity against a variety of bacteria, predominantly gram-negative aerobic bacilli and staphylococci. Adverse effe …

Atipamezole HCLTherapeutic Class:Alpha-2 Adrenergic Antagonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Alpha-2 adrenergic antagonist; reverses the effects of agonists such as dexmedetomidine, medetomidine, and xylazine.No safety data on use in pregnant or lact …

AzithromycinTherapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Oral and parenteral macrolide antibiotics; potentially useful for treating a variety of bacterial infections in veterinary patients; not effective for treating …

BetamethasoneTherapeutic Class:Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Injectable glucocorticoid. Long acting; 25 to 40 times more potent than hydrocortisone; no mineralocorticoid activity.Primary use is intra-articular administration in horse …

Buserelin AcetateTherapeutic Class:Hormonal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Buserelin is a synthetic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue that is designed to alter hormone levels.Typically employed in order to induce ovulation in cycl …

Butorphanol TartrateTherapeutic Class:Opiate Partial Agonist (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Partial opiate agonist/antagonist used in a variety of species as an analgesic, premedication, antitussive, or antiemetic.Reasonably good analgesic for hors …

Calcium LevulinateTherapeutic Class:Mineral Supplement (Systemic)General Notes:The most soluble form of calcium Highest elemental calcium in ionic form Non - irritant form of calcium Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol)Helps in mobilization & absorption of …

AminophyllineTherapeutic Class:Bronchodilator (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Parenteral form of theophylline; bronchodilator drug with diuretic activity. Used short-term for bronchospasm and cardiogenic pulmonary edema. For oral use, see theophylli …

Monographs AcepromazineAcetazolamideAdrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)AltrenogestAmikacin SulfateAminophyllineAtipamezole HCLAzithromycinBetamethasoneBuserelin AcetateButorphanol TartrateCalcium LevulinateChondroitin SulfateChloramphenicolChlorphe …

Researchers and local authorities frequently call upon veterinarians and animal control agents to help capture wild animals unharmed, to relocate animals unharmed in the course of their work, and to safely release animals from traps. It is theref …

Many horse owners have come to their equine veterinarian or favored expert with the same question: They have a wonderful mare that they're thinking about breeding, but they're afraid she might be too old. Perhaps she's always been healthy, but they d …

Many horse owners have entertained the notion of breeding their own prized mare. The idea of producing a foal with traits similar to its mother (or superior to its mother) can be very attractive. It is advisable that the novice horse breeder is a …

Given the wear and tear so many horses undergo as a result of their lifestyles (and, to be fair, ours), the field of veterinary medicine is continually searching for novel medications and new methods for pain relief in horses. "Managing pain in h …

On horse farms, the breeding shed is perhaps the most important place for accurate recordkeeping.1 Understanding as much as possible regarding the mare's breeding cycle can give horse owners and breeders an edge with regard to achieving their b …

Muscle strains resulting in soreness can occur in a muscle or any group of muscles in the horse. Apart from serious injury, arthritis or other degenerative joint diseases (DJDs) however, back soreness is one of the most prevalent chronic issues i …

Whether it's the manager of a breeding operation with numerous horses and a schedule to keep, or someone with a beloved mare they'd like to see pass on their genes for the next generation of equestrians in the family, the question of when a mare …

Unlike most of the domesticated animals with which humans interact (dogs, cats, birds and the like), horses are often called upon to perform very hard work. Due to the nature of the activities in which horses engage, and in which many people enjo …

What horse owners and breeding managers would give for a resource or utility that would allow them to precisely predict the day a mare will ovulate! While there are numerous online resources and charts that can reliably predict parturition based …

Gastric ulcers are common in horses and can affect any horse at any age. In fact, the prevalence of gastric ulcers in horses has been estimated at between 50% to 90%, depending on the populations surveyed and type of activity in which the horse i …

Despite their relatively long gestation period of 335 to 360 days, horses have the potential for fairly high reproductive performance.1 Understanding as much as possible regarding the mare's breeding cycle can give horse owners and breeders an ed …

Many procedures that are routinely accomplished in domestic animals with minimal restraint require anesthesia for the welfare and safety of both the zoo animal and veterinarian. Therefore, the chemical immobilization of wild and exotic animals in …

A working knowledge of the mare’s reproductive anatomy and physiology is essential in a horse breeding program. Familiarity with the mare's estrous cycle and the timing of events therein is equally important. These provide the basis on which all …

Even occasional equestrians—those who ride recreationally at the local stable or farm every now and then—can attest to the fact that running into a horse with a nervous disposition is extremely common. Sometimes, a horse's nervousness is apparent …

Due to the demands placed upon horses that have to work for a living, there is a wealth of information available regarding how to manipulate the mare's cycle in order to keep her out of heat.Typical signs that a mare is in season include holding …

The direct administration of anti-inflammatory drugs into joints to provide relief from discomfort remains a common practice in many sectors of the equine industry. Unfortunately, many of these medications are corticosteroids, which have become c …

Mares have a gestation period of about 340 days. Because of this relatively long pregnancy, they must become pregnant again shortly after giving birth in order to produce a foal at about the same time each year if this is desired by the owner or …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease that affects the central nervous system of horses and which is caused by the protozoal organism. The name given to the protozoan organism shown to be the primary causative agent for EPM is Sarc …

Mares cycle when days are long and there is abundant daylight during most of the day, meaning that under normal circumstances, they cycle in the Spring, Summer and Fall. Mares do not cycle in Winter when daylight is short; this is known as anestr …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease of the horse that affects the central nervous system. Equine obviously refers to the horse, protozoal refers to the type of organism that causes the disease and myeloencephalitis refers to tha …

Horse owners and breeders are continually on the lookout for ways to help improve their mares’ chances of becoming pregnant. One way that veterinarians are able to help is by administering prostaglandins.1 There are several forms of prostaglandin …

Since wild animals are, well... wild, this dictates that any manipulation requiring handling will also necessitate chemical immobilization. Wildlife veterinarians are not only required to possess the normal complement of skills and qualifications …

Generally speaking, the best time for mating of a mare and stallion is determined by several factors. These include the length of daylight (season), the daily temperature, the mare's general health, diet, the amount of rainfall, the climate, and …

Horse owners, managers and veterinarians are frequently faced with a need to to calm excitable horses or to provide relief from minor pain, or to facilitate minor or minimally-invasive procedures such as bronchoscopy, bronchoalveolar lavage, naso …

Mares are seasonally polyestrus; this means that they experience regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, with none occurring during the Winter. The typical mare cycles regularly between March and October, with each estrou …

There is a wide variety of pain relievers available for horses that can help alleviate pain and discomfort associated with injury or daily exercise, and enable easier, prompt treatment of the problem at hand.Methods of managing pain in horses ran …

During the fetal development of the mare itself, a pool of primordial follicles forms as ovarian tissue, and each follicle consists of prophase I oocytes surrounded with a single layer of flattened granulosa cells.1 By the time the mare reaches s …

The nature of wild animals dictates that any manipulation that requires handling will necessitate chemical immobilization. Anaesthetizing wild animals is typically done to mark an animal, to apply a radio transmitter, administer individual …

Since mares are seasonally polyestrus, they experience regular estrous cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during the Winter. These cycles are controlled by hormones, which respond to increases or decreases in daylight dura …

Altrenogest is a progestational drug used in horses to suppress estrus or maintain pregnancy when progestin deficient. It is also used in pigs to synchronize estrus, and may be used in dogs for luteal deficiency or to prevent premature delivery …

The ovarian follicle is a fluid-filled sac surrounded by a group of cells that protect and nourish the ovum (egg). There are thousands of follicles in a mare’s ovaries, but usually only one begins to develop during each estrous cycle.1 By Day 16 …

In the case of a performance mare—one which races, for example—the reasons for preventing such a horse from coming into heat may be self-evident. The sort of behaviors often exhibited by mares in estrus—stamping, vocalizing, nipping, tail-swis …

"Even the quietest of mares can turn into a proverbial fire-breathing dragon during her estrous cycle, which can make riding, training, competing, or handling these horses a challenge for any equestrian."1 Fortunately, over the years, veterinaria …

The fact that the horse is seasonally polyestrous makes this species a reproductive challenge for horsemen and equine practitioners. Mares will show several estrous cycles during the breeding season, assuming pregnancy does not terminate estrus. …

A significant segment of the equine industry is involved with the breeding and of mares and the management of their breeding cycle. Given the sheer numbers of animals involved, this means that the economic considerations make it absolutely necess …

The estrous cycle (or oestrus cycle) is the group of physiological changes that occur in sexually mature female mammals which are brought on by reproductive hormones. The changes facilitate fertility and reproduction.Horses (mares) are seasonally …

Mares are seasonally polyestrus, meaning that they experience regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during the Winter. These cycles are controlled by hormones, which respond to increases or decreases in dayligh …

Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus in response to an increase in day length. As the hours of daily sunlight (or photoperiod) increase, melatonin levels subside, allowing GnRH to be produced. Productio …

Altrenogest is a progestin of the 19-nortestosterone group commonly used to suppress or synchronize estrus in horses. It is used extensively in the reproductive management of mares to control the reproductive cycle, help maintain pregnancy, and h …

Mares are seasonally polyestrus, which means that they experience regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during the Winter. These cycles are controlled by hormones, which respond to increases or decreases in day …

Mares are seasonally polyestrus, meaning that they experience regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during the Winter. These cycles are controlled by hormones, which respond to increases or decreases in dayligh …

The administration of hormones to mares during breeding management is an essential tool for equine practitioners. Proper and timely administration of specific hormones to broodmares may be targeted to prevent reproductive disorders, to serve as a …

Deslorelin acetate is a potent synthetic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue.1 According to the literature, the advantage to using deslorelin over hCG to induce ovulation is that it possesses a smaller molecular weight than hCG, making …

Buserelin is a synthetic luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone (LHRH) analog. Like naturally occurring LHRH that is produced by the hypothalamus, initial or intermittent administration of buserelin stimulates release of luteinizing hormone (LH) a …

In general, the estrous cycle (or oestrus cycle) is the group of physiological changes that occur in sexually mature female mammals which are brought on by reproductive hormones. The changes facilitate fertility and reproduction.Horses (mares) ar …

She stamps and squeals when other horses pass her stall. She forgets her manners, swishing her tail and trying to nip when you groom and tack her up. And when you ride, she's a total airhead, ignoring your aids, whinnying, jigging and dancing, …

Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that is concerned with health of animals; i.e., the maintenance of health and prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease and injury in animals. This includes domesticated and wild animal specie …

Obviously, all animals have the potential for carrying diseases. Nearly all of us remember the warning we heard as children when we approached an unfamiliar animal or a small furry creature in the wild: "Don't touch that; you don't know where it' …

Are there currently important unmet needs that exist in veterinary medicine, and if so, what are they and how might they be met?In developed nations, unmet needs in the realm of human medicine regularly make press reports, as economies rise or fa …

The subject of veterinary science is concerned with the treatment of a range of different animals; these include domestic pets, exotic pets, companion animals, performance animals, farmyard animals, zoo animals and wildlife. It encompasses an arra …

According to the American Pet Products Association (APPA), revenue in the U.S. pet industry is expected to be $75.38 billion in 2019, with an estimated $18.1 billion of that figure slated for veterinary care.1 That is a decidedly impressive figur …

Veterinarians are licensed professionals who are trained to diagnose and treat diseases and injuries in animals, as well as being educated in the prevention of disease and the maintenance of animal health. Most people are familiar with the role …

How is math used in veterinary medicine..?Typically, a veterinary degree require approximately six years of study at the university level, including a minimum of two years of pre-veterinary education and four years in a veterinary medicine progra …

Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection caused by the spirochete Leptospira interrogans. The inoculation process involves bacteria penetrating the skin and spreading through the body by way of the bloodstream. Spirochetes are spiral or corkscrew-sh …

In brief, the field of zoology involves the study of animals at all levels, from their evolutionary origins, molecular and cell biology to their physiology, behavior and ecology. Veterinary science refers to the branch of medicine that deals with …

The most common cause of Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) in horses is thought to be viral infection, although it is believed that it can also be brought on by bacterial, protozoan or fungal causes. Some researchers have designated AES as a grou …

Veterinarians are the doctors of the animal world. They use their skills to evaluate patients, make diagnoses, and treat a wide range of conditions.1 For most people, the role of a veterinarian consists of maintaining their pet's (or pets') health …

Chlorpromazine is a phenothiazine tranquilizer. 1 While Chlorpromazine is often used by veterinarians as a centrally-acting antiemetic to prevent nausea and vomiting in dogs and cats, it has been widely used as a calming agent in performan …

In May 1998, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of a branded version of clenbuterol for the management of horses affected with airway obstruction, such as occurs in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In other …