The chemical immobilization of bongo antelope in the field is associated with more risks than in a clinical or zoo setting. In most cases, these animals cannot be examined with regards to their health status beforehand and they often cannot receive a …

Wild animals are regularly captured for a variety of reasons, some of which include conservation efforts, breeding programs, relocation and research. In areas in which the habitats of humans and wild animals overlap, the reason for capture can become …

The bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is a large forest-living African antelope. Bongo are found in montane rain forests with dense undergrowth. They thrive at the forest edge and in new growth areas that occur after disturbances. Eastern (or mountain …

The practice of capturing wild animals is as old as human existence. Methods for animal capture predate recorded history, and were largely predicated upon communities’ need for food and clothing. Today, the reasons for the capture of wild species are …

Veterinarians are often called upon to help capture wild animals unharmed, to relocate animals and to safely release animals from traps during the course of their work. This may include veterinarians who are consulted by animal control personnel, vet …

Game animals are wild animals which are typically hunted for food or other resources, or for sport,1 and capture in this context means the restraint of such animals. The reasons which necessitate wildlife game vary widely, often depending on the geog …

Every year, millions of wild animals are captured as part of damage and disease control programs, population regulation activities, wildlife management efforts, and research studies.1 Many areas of animal capture—particularly those associated with pr …

The bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is an African antelope species characterized by prominent colors and long, spiral horns. Bongos have a reddish-brown coat with 10-15 vertical white stripes and a thin mane running along their back. Their legs have bl …

The Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) is the largest of Africa’s forest antelopes. It is nocturnal, and has two subspecies: the western or lowland bongo, and the eastern or mountain bongo. The western bongo is considered threatened and the mountain bongo …

Wild animal trainers teach and train exotic animals in numerous settings, including scientific venues, zoos, aquariums, animal parks and other facilities. Additionally, some trainers find work in the entertainment industry, training animals as perfor …

Whether or not a wild animal needs to be chemically immobilized is generally a function of accessibility to the animal, the potential risks to the animal and its handlers associated with handling it, and the degree of invasiveness of the procedures i …

When discussing animal capture techniques, or more specifically, wildlife capture techniques, two types of capture are being referenced: physical capture and chemical immobilization. Physical capture broadly describes the use of devices such as traps …

Animal capture (or wildlife capture) is an event in which an animal is caught and restrained to varying degrees by humans. Reasons for wildlife captures vary widely: marking, collaring with tracking devices, disease surveillance, translocations relat …

Numerous wildlife capture and handling education programs currently exist, covering a wide array of areas. These can include, but are not limited to training for: Persons working in or preparing to work in commercial facilities that display and/or c …

Wild and exotic animals are far more susceptible to stress and injury during capture, handling and restraint than domestic species, even in a zoo setting, wherein they have often been largely acclimatized to captivity. Even relatively minor procedure …

The Bongo antelope belongs to the genus Tragelaphus, which includes the Sitatunga, Nyala, Bushbuck, Mountain Nyala, Lesser Kudu and Greater Kudu. Bongo are further catalogued into the two subspecies Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus, the lowland or Wes …

The bongo is a large forest-living antelope that lives in the lowland forests of West Africa to southern Sudan, with small populations occupying some highland forests of Kenya and the Congo. Bongo have a reddish-brown coat with 10-15 vertical white s …

Bongo antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus) are the largest and most colorful of the forest African antelopes. They are found mostly in the lowland forests of West Africa where they reside among the ground level shrubs and bushes, with smaller populations …

The bongo antelope is a large, forest-living antelope that lives in the lowland forests of Zaire and West Africa to southern Sudan, with small populations also living in the highland forests of Kenya and also in the Congo. Currently, all bongo are co …

There are many reasons that individuals opt for education in animal care and handling. Many areas have local health codes which require that all pet shops or businesses that sell, groom or board cats, dogs or other small animals must have someone wit …

Wildlife capture is essentially the use of systems and devices to capture wildlife species for a variety of purposes, including food, wildlife management, research, relocation and pest control. In some cases, this may also include the capture of cert …

Capture myopathy is a life-threatening condition that can occur in animals when muscle damage results from extreme exertion or prolonged struggle. It is often identified as exertional myopathy, overstraining disease and exertional rhabdomyolysis.1 Ca …

Wildlife veterinarians are licensed medical professionals who specialize in treating many different types of wildlife, including birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. They may work in a veterinary office setting, in the field or a combination of …

Caring for wild animals is different than caring for domesticated animals and companion animals (pets) and requires specialized training and experience. From a veterinary medical perspective, it is a challenge to diagnose and treat patients that not …

Wild animals are captured, handled and housed in a wide variety of contexts, including management, conservation and scientific research. Animals are often subjected to similar procedures and risks of compromised welfare from capture, anesthesia, hand …

The word “antelope” is used to describe a wide variety of horned mammals in the Families Bovidae and Antilocapridae. Antelope males (and the females of some species) have unbranched horns that attach to the frontal bones of the skull.Antelope vary wi …

Depending on the area in which they function, animal control officers can be called upon to interact with wildlife on a regular basis. In suburban, rural and semi-rural regions where various where the habitats of humans and wildlife species overlap, …

Research, zoo applications, conservation and management programs can require the capture and manipulation of antelope. The development of non- and minimally invasive procedures over the years have allowed researchers, veterinarians and management per …

Antelope are a diverse collection of ruminants of the families Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The bongo is a large forest-living antelope that lives in the lowland forests of Zaire and West Africa to southern Sudan. There are also small populations in t …

Wildlife managers, researchers and veterinarians in zoo settings sometimes need to immobilize antelope to mark them for identification, to provide veterinary treatment or to relocate them from dangerous or overpopulated locations. While the term “imm …

The chemical immobilization of antelope is often necessary for a variety of reasons, including physiological study, research, and for the purposes of wildlife management. However, immobilizing drugs can adversely affect the cardiovascular and respira …

Capture and/or chemical immobilization events carry inherent risks to wildlife regardless of size or species, but these risks are often more pronounced when dealing with larger species such as antelope and other hoofstock in the field. During capture …

Apart from traps, capture with nets and the mass-capture of herds of animals, chemical immobilization has become the chief method of capture for large wildlife species for the purposes of translocation, diagnostic testing or medical treatment. In zoo …

The chemical immobilization of antelope can require extended periods of immobility in the captured animal, particularly as regards antelope species in North America and other areas of the Northern Hemisphere. While hypothermia is an inherent risk to …

Antelope are very widespread animals, comprising around 90 of the approximately 140 known species of the Bovidaefamily (which includes sheep, goats, and domesticated cattle). Antelope belong to the order Artiodactyla, the most distinctive feature of …

Shock is a critical condition that is brought on by a sudden drop in blood flow throughout an animal’s body. Shock can be the result of a wide variety of conditions or circumstances, including extreme physical stress, trauma, disease, heatstroke, blo …

Bloat is a serious condition that is fatal if left untreated. In veterinary medicine, it is frequently seen in large dogs and is known as gastric dilatation-volvulus, or GDV, and can occur spontaneously. Bloat occurs when an animal's stomach fills wi …

Field immobilization of antelope is sometimes required for medical examination, blood sample collection, and animal identification, and the importance of performing such procedures for research and conservation projects is widely acknowledged.1 As th …

Cardiac arrest, or cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) is characterized by an abrupt, complete failure of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The subsequent lack of oxygen transport can quickly cause systemic cellular death from oxygen depletion.1 If l …

Capture myopathy (CM) is a serious condition that can occur in wild and domestic animals wherein muscle damage results from extreme exertion, struggle, or stress. It is also known as exertional myopathy, overstraining disease and exertional rhabdomyo …

“Antelope” is a common name that has been ascribed to various members of the family Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The pronghorn antelope, Antilocapra americana, is the only member in the Antilocapridae family.1 Antelope males and the females of some sp …

Aspiration is described as when a foreign substance enters the airway or lungs; this can apply to food, liquid, or other materials. Aspiration can give rise to serious health problems, such as pneumonia. Aspiration can occur when a human or animal ha …

Vomiting is one of the more common post-sedation and post-anesthesia complications in both domestic and exotic animals. Vomiting once or twice after a surgical procedure can be considered normal however, if the vomiting continues, it can be a sign of …

Managing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) often requires the live capture of individual animals, and chemical immobilization often is the most effective method of capture.1 Throughout the modern history of the chemical immobilization of wil …

Gastric ulcers (often referenced as gastroduodenal ulcer disease) in dogs refers to ulcers found in the dog's stomach and/or the first section of the small intestine, also known as the duodenum.1 The gastric mucosal barrier in the dog’s digestive tra …

One of the most challenging aspects of wildlife veterinary medicine is the process of determining the correct dosages for wildlife species when providing chemical immobilization. Chemical immobilization is a form of animal restraint in which medicati …

Wildlife practice is an extremely specialized area of veterinary medicine, and restraint nearly always requires the use of anesthetic drugs to allow a safe and efficient immobilization before the practitioner proceeds with plans for the targeted indi …

Mink are members of the weasel family and are native to the Northern Hemisphere. Historically, both the American mink (Neovison vison) and the European mink (Mustela lutreola) have been valued for their fur. The American mink is a staple of the fur i …

Anesthesia is an integral part of exotic animal medicine, whether in the field, or in research or zoo settings. Even the most basic procedures typically require sedation or anesthesia, since most animals are either too shy, fast, or dangerous to hand …

The family Mustelidae comprises stoats, polecats, mink, fishers, wolverines, weasels, martens, badgers, and otters, and is the largest family within the order Carnivora. Mustelids have a global distribution, with members found on every continent exce …

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are the smallest members of the North American deer family, and are found from southern Canada to South America. Favoring wooded areas, the home range of a White-tailed deer is usually less than one square m …

There are numerous drug and drug combinations that are used for the remote immobilization of wildlife species, but only a few have become standards amongst veterinarians and wildlife managers. For years, many large wildlife species have been remotely …

In recent decades, conservation efforts and the endangered status of certain wildlife species have become more prominent among wildlife biologists and lay persons alike. Innumerable conservation efforts focused on wild animals (including mammals and …

The chemical immobilization of wild animals is a form of veterinary anesthesia conducted under difficult circumstances.1Historically, chemical immobilization can be traced back to certain tribes from South America who used curare-coated arrows in the …

These days, a cursory web search will show that there are literally hundreds of safe capture chemical immobilization courses being offered in the U.S. alone. Typically sponsored by universities, zoos and wildlife management bureaus, these courses off …

Field wildlife anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures. Typically, anesthesia for noninvasive procedures is utilized for the safety of the handlers and animals. Further, anesthesia and analgesia are crucial componen …

Capturing and chemically immobilizing a bear can be the most traumatic incident of its life, thus, it is extremely important to justify all capture and trapping procedures. Anyone involved in the chemical immobilization of bear or any wildlife should …

An interest in llamas and alpacas as pets, breeding and pack animals has led to increased demand for veterinary services for these animals. Despite having certain unique species characteristics regarding anesthesia, many of the principles and techniq …

The improvement of chemical capture protocols and procedures is an important part of wildlife conservation and animal welfare, in order to minimize distress and the risk of morbidity and mortality in these animals. Throughout history, people have bee …

Chemical restraint (with or without local anesthesia) has long been used to perform diagnostic or minor surgical procedures in small ruminants. However, anesthetic and analgesic techniques are required when specific diagnostic procedures and painful …

Milk has been an important food source for humans since the domestication of dairy animals began. It is a common component of the animal-derived food products that comprise many diets. Methods to ensure the safety and quality of goat milk and milk pr …

Ovine foot rot is a costly disease in the sheep industry, with producers losing time and money each year in their attempts to control this condition in their flocks. When foot rot becomes a problem on a farm, it takes a great deal of effort to contro …

Field anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures on wild animals. For invasive procedures, the potential for immediate and lasting pain must be addressed and appropriate analgesia provided. In situations where the mini …

Many procedures that are regularly carried out in domestic animals with minimal restraint require sedation or anesthesia for the safety of the exotic animal, the veterinarian and support staff. This is true whether the exotic animal is captive (in a …

Moose (Alces alces) is the largest member of the deer family; they are found in the northern regions of Eurasia and North America. While the Eurasian and American moose are very similar, the American moose is somewhat larger and is considered by some …

The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the most widely distributed large wild cat, and occupies a broad variety of habitats, ranging from rainforests to deserts and from the fringes of urban areas to remote mountain ranges.1 The Indian subspecies, Panthera …

The sedation and immobilization of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a tricky proposition due to a combination of problems often encountered in such procedures that can result in mortality or morbidity to the animal.1 Giraffes have a unique anatomy …

Goats can suffer from numerous diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites as well as non-infectious agents. Diagnosing disease conditions in the goat can be difficult, since many diseases manifest similarly in this species. However, the progress …

Diseases of farm and feedlot animals regularly threaten the lives of millions of livestock. These animals are relied upon in the food supply, meaning that massive losses can lead to widespread food shortages. In March of 2018, 73,500 chickens were cu …

Elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) are the largest subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus), found in North America and in the high mountains of Central Asia. Also called wapiti, elk are members of the deer family, Cervidae (order Artiodactyla). Recent g …

The mountain lion (Puma concolor) is the largest wild felid in the North American continent. It is also frequently known as the cougar or puma. Mountain lions are obligate carnivores that can be found in varied habitats in the U.S. and Canada, althou …

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are approximately twice as the size of the average housecat. They have long legs, large paws, and tufted ears similar to those of their larger relative, the Canada lynx. Bobcats are brown or brownish-red with a white belly and a …

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is found throughout the Arctic region. These animals travel long distances over vast expanses, often on drifting oceanic ice floes, searching for seals, their primary prey. Polar bears are stocky in build, with a long …

Veterinarians generally agree that the cat is truly a “different breed of cat” when it comes to responses to disease and medical treatment in the small animal clinic. Dogs and cats are most often seen in the small animal veterinary practice, but asid …

Xylazine (xylazine HCl) is an α-2 adrenergic agonist that is commonly used for its sedative and analgesic properties in a variety of species.1 Xylazine is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in dogs, cats, horses, deer, an …

Capturing, immobilizing, and fitting for radio collars are common practices in studies of large mammals. However, many species of large mammals exist in remnant or “island-like” populations in which there is little or no gene flow.1 Concern amongst r …

The iconic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is one of the most highly-specialized and effective hunters in nature. As recently as 1900, it had a vast geographic range that spanned Africa, the Middle East and across Asia into the Indian subcontinent.1 Durin …

Nondomestic ruminants such as deer can be encountered in the wild, on exotic animal or cervid ranches on breeding farms, and in zoos or petting farms. In order to handle or treat species of deer, most require manual restraint using a hydraulic squeez …

Worms and other gastrointestinal parasites are very common in cats, and are among the most detrimental things that can impact a cat's overall health. Not only can certain worms eat away at the intestines, but they can also poach vital nutrients from …

Coccidia is a protozoan that infects the intestinal tract of cats and other species, causing coccidiosis. In cats, most coccidia encountered are of the genus called Isospora. Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta are the most common species of coccidia …

Coccidiosis is an intestinal tract infection caused by one-celled protozoa called coccidia. In cats, most coccidia encountered are of the genus called Isospora, with Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta being the most common species of coccidia affect …

Attention to detail in preparing for the capture or immobilization of deer may be the greatest predictor of a successful outcome. Anxiety, anticipation of danger, unfamiliar environments and crowded conditions can cause stress in animals and are usua …

Acute pain in cats is typically related to surgical procedures or following trauma. As unlikely as it may seem due to their legendary agility, cats do occasionally suffer from injuries due to misadventure, including falls. In the case of surgeries, p …

There has been an increased interest in the captive propagation of elephants and other large exotic animals in recent years, largely for reasons of conservation. As a result, more and more zoos and wildlife preserves are keeping, or anticipate holdin …

Cats tend to be different in their responses to injury, disease and medical treatment as compared to dogs or other animals typically seen in the small animal clinic.1 In human patients, a clinician can simply ask the patient how much pain he or she i …

Technically, pain is “an aversive sensory experience that causes response with protective motor actions, resulting in learned avoidance of the experience.”1 Adaptive pain is typically responsive to medication, whereas maladaptive pain (a spontaneous …

Immobilization is the imposed restriction of movement of all or part of an animal’s body, either by physical or chemical means. Typically, immobilization is used to facilitate management of some form (e.g., health, safety, conservation), and it …

Gastrointestinal parasites are common in cats, with prevalence rates as high as 45% in some populations.1 Several types of gastrointestinal parasites can infect cats of any age, although infestations in kittens can be far more serious than in adult c …

Distressing though it may be to cat owners, it is highly likely that at some point during every cat’s life, he or she will almost certainly be affected by worms or other gastrointestinal parasites. There are around eight different types of intestinal …

Gastric ulcers (or gastroduodenal ulcer disease) in dogs are lesions that form in the lining of the stomach or upper gastrointestinal tract. These occur when the surface layer (mucosal barrier) that lines the stomach becomes compromised. Many disease …

As with humans, our dogs may at some point require anesthesia for a surgery or some other procedure. Puppies typically receive anesthesia when they are spayed or neutered, and even procedures as simple as dentistries do require that a dog be anesthet …

Gastritis is a term used to describe inflammation of the lining of the stomach, with the most common sign associated with gastritis being vomiting. In cats, the signs may appear mild, or they can be debilitating or even life threatening, requiring ho …

While many lifelong dog owners have never experienced their beloved canines suffering from gastric ulcers (stomach or intestinal ulcers), this malady is quite common among dogs. Also called gastroduodenal ulcer disease, this syndrome applies to ulcer …

The peril of intestinal parasites is a serious concern for dog owners. Parasites and worms can cause a variety of ailments which range from minor gastrointestinal upset, all the way up to life-threatening medical crises. Pets that have access to the …

Hearing an otherwise normal and healthy dog begin to wheeze, sneeze or cough persistently for the first time can be puzzling, alarming, or a combination of both—particularly if one has never heard these sounds before. Normal, transitory reactions to …

While we may not like to think about it, nearly all dogs are infested with worms to one degree or another. Parasitic worms can affect a dog’s ability to absorb nutrients, damage the lining of its intestinal tract, and cause the dog to become very …

The word “anesthesia” comes from the Greek words meaning "lack of sensation."1 Anesthesia is achieved through the administration of drugs that depress nerve function. In general anesthesia, the patient is rendered completely unconscious for a proscri …

Bronchitis (also called tracheobronchitis) in dogs is a sudden or long term inflammation of the trachea and bronchial airways that can also extend into the lungs. It often occurs in dogs already affected by respiratory disease or a disorder of the lu …

The owners of companion animals have become significantly more knowledgeable and attentive regarding their pets’ health over the last few decades. In that time, a great deal has been learned—and shared by the veterinary medical community—as regards d …

There may be situations that arise where your dog may require general anesthesia or sedation for routine medical services or surgical procedures. In some cases, certain medical diagnostic procedures may also require anesthesia or sedation. Anesthesia …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is the most prevalent cause of neurologic disease of horses in the Americas (North, Central and South America). It is an extremely serious disease that can be difficult to diagnose due to the fact that its pre …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estradiol Cypionate (ECP) is a pro-drug ester of Estradiol, a naturally occurring hormone that circulates endogenously within …

Early and accurate diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare is critical in determining her reproductive viability during the breeding season. Once a mare has been determined to be pregnant, her embryonic growth and fetal development may be accurately monit …

Shivers is a neuromuscular syndrome in horses that has been recognized for centuries.1 At certain times, this condition has been called “Shivers” or “Shivering,” but both refer to the same syndrome. Interestingly, the literature states that throughou …

People who love horses tend to really love horses, and that goes triple for the horse owner who has decided to move forward with breeding their mare. Whether it’s an individual horse owner with a prized mare or a breeding operation of pretty much any …

The gestation period of the mare is less well-defined as compared to many other mammals. In other words, the window for parturition in the mare is much broader than that of other mammals. Mares are seasonally polyestrus, which means that their breedi …

In relation to horses, and performance horses in particular, the word “fatigue” is typically used to denote a horse’s inability to continue to perform at the desired level. This may manifest as slowing down, not being able to jump as high as is opti …

MonographsAcepromazineAcetazolamideAdrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)AltrenogestAmikacin SulfateAminophyllineAtipamezole HCLAzithromycinBetamethasoneBuserelin AcetateButorphanol TartrateCalcium LevulinateChondroitin SulfateChloramphenicolChlorpheni …

Chemical sedation and anesthesia are integral parts of veterinary medicine in the zoo setting. Even the most basic clinical examinations require sedation or anesthesia, since most patients in the zoo are either too nervous, too fast or too dangerous …

As discussed several times in this space, mares seasonally polyestrus, which means that their estrous cycles depend on the season. A mare will undergo regular estrus cycles during late Spring, Summer and early Fall, and none during Winter. It is larg …

Many mares posses the bona fides that warrant breeding, such as good temperament, conformation, bloodlines and talent, but age is also a very important consideration. Despite the fact that it isn’t at all uncommon to find mares bred during their 20s, …

Therapeutic Class:Synthetic GnRH (Systemic Drug)General Notes: A synthetic nonapeptide analog of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone [LHRH], gonadorelin).Palliative treatment of advanced prostate cancer in hum …

Therapeutic Class: Mucopolysaccharide (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Parenteral, high viscosity mucopolysaccharide used for synovitis. Contraindications: None on label. Adverse effects: Local reactions possible. Different products have different d …

Therapeutic Class: Local Anti-infective (Dermatological Medication) General Notes: A nonmetallic element and topical anti-infective agent. In humans, iodine deficiency has been studied in connection with the occurrence of fibrocystic breast dis …

Horse owners and managers commonly report muscular fatigue of horses. Muscular fatigue can be caused by numerous disorders of several body systems, or it can be a function of (or a normal consequence of) prolonged exercise. The decreased ability of …

The management of large hoofstock in the wild or on preserves often necessitates live capture of specific individuals, and chemical immobilization is generally the most effective method for capturing these animals. Selective capture of deer and other …

Therapeutic Class:Antifungal Agent (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Parenteral-aminoglycoside antibiotic that is active against a variety of bacteria, predominantly gram-negative aerobic bacilli, but also many staphylococci.Because of potential adverse e …

How long is a horse pregnant? Well, the short answer is 10 to 12 months, or from approximately 326 days to 354 days (although there have been cases where gestation for a mare has gone as long as 365 to 370 days). Most mares only carry one foal per pr …

Therapeutic Class: Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agent (NSAID, Systemic Drug) General Notes: NSAID FDA-approved for topical use in horses for local control of joint pain & inflammation. Rare cases of esophagitis have been reported in pati …

Therapeutic Class: Alpha Agonist (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Direct vasodilator A derivative of guanabenz. The Molecular Weight of guanabenz is 231.08. Primarily indicated in conditions like hypertension. Used in racing and other performance …

Therapeutic Class: Injectable Hematinic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Injectable hematinic. Used with epoetin (EPO) in small animals. Contraindications: Do not give IV or SC. Known hypersensitivity to iron sucrose or iron dextran; presence …

Therapeutic Class: Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent used in horses, cats (short-term), and dogs. Cautions: GI ulceration or bleeding, hypoproteinemia, breeding animals (esp …

Therapeutic Class: Antifungal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Fungistatic antibiotic used primarily for ringworm and other dermatophytic infections; no effect on other fungi. Azole antifungal agents and terbinafine have largely supplanted …

Therapeutic Class: Antiparasitic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Used in dogs and cats to prevent heartworm disease by eliminating tissue stages of heartworm larvae and in cats to remove and control hookworms Used in cattle, horses, and sheep as …

Therapeutic Class:Dissociative General Anesthetic, NMDA-Receptor Antagonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Dissociative general anesthetic that also inhibits N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and may be adjunctively useful for controlling painContr …

While most animals ultimately do well with general anesthesia in the hands of a dedicated veterinarian, the fact is that general anesthesia does pose inherent risks, and this is the case in both animal and human medicine. Exotic animals in the wild, …

Therapeutic Class: Parenteral Muscle Relaxant (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Muscle relaxant (parenteral) adjunctive for anesthesia. Contraindications: None noted except concurrent use with physostigmine. Must be used with caution in induction …

Therapeutic Class:Antifungal, Azole (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Original imidazole oral antifungal historically used for systemic mycoses, but newer agents are generally preferred.Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity; some believe ketoconazole …

The capture, restraint and handling of free-roaming wild mammals involves potential dangers to both the animals and humans involved. As a result, this area of veterinary medicine was largely neglected until the middle of the 20th Century, when wildli …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estrogen therapy is currently being used widely by veterinarians treating intermittent upward patellar fixation (IUPF) in hors …

Clenbuterol HCl is a beta-2-adrenoceptor agonist; it is the only FDA-approved medication for horses with reversible bronchospasm and is often used to treat horses with inflammatory airway disease (IAD) and recurrent airway obstruction (RAO, commonly …

Clenbuterol hydrochloride is a β2-adrenergic agonist that is used in horses as a short-term bronchodilator. In the short-term, it is typically employed in the management of airway obstruction (eg, severe equine asthma [SEA], formerly known as recurre …

Xylazine hydrochloride, an α₂ class of adrenergic receptor, has long been used for sedation, anesthesia, muscle relaxation, and analgesia in animals such as horses, cattle and other non-human mammals. In horses however, adverse effects included muscl …

Standing sedation is a critical component in many key procedures done on-site and in the equine veterinary clinic. When choosing between the available sedation drugs, veterinarians must consider safety, cost effectiveness for the client and the pract …

Xylazine hydrochloride is used widely for the chemical restraint of exotic animals in biological research, surgical procedures and veterinary medicine. This non-narcotic drug can induce a sedative, analgesic and muscle relaxing effect by autonomic an …

Atipamezole hydrochloride is a synthetic α2-adrenergic antagonist. Its chemical name is 4-(2-ethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-yl)-1H-imidazole hydrochloride.1 It is indicated for the reversal of the sedative and analgesic effects of dexmedetomidine hydro …

Clenbuterol is a β2-adrenergic agonist that is used in horses as a short-term bronchodilator for the management of airway obstruction and for chronic breathing ailments in horses such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD, also known as "hea …

Long ago, veterinarians discovered that there are many surgical and other medical procedures which can be carried out in standing horses if the appropriate combinations of physical and chemical restraint are employed. The ability to perform procedure …

Strictly speaking, exotic animal medicine encompasses all zoo animals, wildlife, and nondomestic pets,1 and the modalities of treatment for zoo animals and wildlife are nearly identical. This of course includes physical as well as chemical immobiliza …

Estradiol Cypionate is a pro-drug ester of Estradiol, a naturally occurring hormone that circulates endogenously within the human body. Estradiol is the most potent form of all mammalian estrogenic steroids and acts as the major female sex hormone. A …

Estradiol is a medication and naturally-occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in hormone therapy. Estradiol cypionate (ECP) is used to induce estrus in horses. It is also used by veterinarians to treat estrogen-responsive in …

Diclazuril is a triazinone antiprotozoal that is effective for treating infections caused by Isospora spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Eimeria spp. and has been used for treating coccidiosis.1 Initially, diclazuril was approved in Europe and in the U.S. …

Clenbuterol is a substituted phenylaminoethanol and a long-acting beta-2 adrenergic agonist with sympathomimetic activity. Pharmacologically, clenbuterol selectively binds to and activates beta-2 adrenergic receptors in bronchiolar smooth muscle, the …

Atipamezole, a synthetic drug with an imidazole structure, is a highly selective α2-adrenergic antagonist.1,2 Typically used to counteract the sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, and other effects produced by α2-adrenergic agonists (such as dexmedetomidin …

While there are inherent risks to deep sedation over general anesthesia in veterinary medicine,1 it is generally accepted that sedation carries less risks compared to general anesthesia in most cases. “While no clear statistics exist regarding the mo …

Veterinarians are regularly called upon to anesthetize a wide variety of exotic animals. For the purposes of this discussion, exotic animals are those non-domesticated species that are encountered in the field, in a zoo setting or those which have fo …

Therapeutic Class: Alpha-2 Adrenergic Agonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Alpha-2 sedative analgesic used primarily in horses. Contraindications: Heart block, severe coronary, cerebrovascular or respiratory disease, chronic kidney disease. C …

Therapeutic Class: B Vitamin (Systemic Drug) General Notes: B Vitamin necessary for nucleoprotein synthesis & normal erythropoiesis. Injectable or oral dosage forms. Folic acid deficiency may be seen in animals (especially cats) with proximal o …

Therapeutic Class: First-Generation Antihistamine (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Serotonin antagonist antihistamine used primarily as an appetite stimulant in cats; can be useful in management of serotonin-syndrome in small animals. Has also been …

Therapeutic Class: Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Glucocorticoid used most commonly in veterinary medicine as an inhaled aerosol. Has shown efficacy in treating feline asthma, dogs with chronic cough, & in horses for recurrent airwa …

Therapeutic Class:Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) (Systemic Drug) General Notes:A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant that is FDA-approved for use in dogs and used extra-label in cats for a variety of behavior d …

General anaesthetics and/or sedatives can take a number of hours to wear off and in some cases can cause patients to appear drowsy for more than a day. General anesthetic in healthy animals pose little risk, however, morbidity due to anesthesia does …

The use and study of wild animals frequently involves physical handling and in some instances the performance of surgical or other stressful procedures. With few exceptions, the requirements for domestic species are typically those of pain relief and …

Historically, the pharmacological immobilization of wild animals can be traced back to certain South American tribes who used curare-coated arrows to take down prey animals. Curare is an alkoloidal neurotoxin and muscle relaxant that competes with ac …

The broad term “anesthesia” typically covers simple immobilization and recovery via heavy sedation as well as general anesthesia, despite these two modalities being distinctly different. The latter involves central nervous system depression resulting …

Performing general anesthesia in the field can be impractical as well as stressful for wildlife managers, veterinarians and their support staff; even under ideal conditions, it can cause morbidity and mortality in animals.1 Thus, immobilization proto …

Field wildlife anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive (e.g., surgical) and noninvasive (e.g., blood collection, collaring, metabolic) procedures. Anesthesia for noninvasive procedures is commonly utilized for the safety of the investigators …

Chemical immobilization consists of the use of chemical anesthetic and/or sedation agents to subdue, restrain or immobilize wildlife. The reasons for employing chemical immobilization in the field generally include research studies, conservation and …

In the mid-20th Century, the chemical immobilization of exotic animals became of increasing necessity, but at that time, there were no protocols nor procedures in widespread use in the field of wildlife management. In the late 1950s, the first comple …

Therapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Macrolide antibiotic that may useful in the treatment of atypical mycobacterial infections or Helicobacter spp infections in dogs, cats, and ferrets and Rhodococcus …

Therapeutic Class: Histamine2 Blocker (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Prototype histamine2-blocker primarily used to reduce GI acid production. Newer H2-blockers (eg, ranitidine, famotidine) and other antacid agents (eg, omeprazole) may be more e …

Therapeutic Class: Reproductive Hormone (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Human glycoprotein hormone that mimics luteinizing hormone; used for a variety of theriogenology conditions in many species. Only for parenteral administration. Contraind …

Therapeutic Class: Nutritional Supplement (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Dietary supplement (not an approved drug) that may be useful as an adjunctive treatment for osteoarthritis or other painful conditions in horses, cats, & dogs; FLUTD in c …

Therapeutic Class:Skeletal Muscle Relaxant (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Direct-acting muscle relaxant.Primary indications: Horses: postanesthesia myositis/acute rhabdomyolysis; Dogs & Cats: functional urethral obstruction, potentially rhabdomyolysi …

Therapeutic Class: Antiprotozoal/Coccidiostat (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Coccidiostat Not FDA approved for lactating dairy animals or laying chickens. Not effective against adult coccidia; no effect on clinical coccidiosis; results in tr …

Therapeutic Class: Antihistamine (Systemic Drug)General Notes: An alkylamine antihistamine used primarily for its antihistamine and antipruritic effects; occasionally used for CNS depressant (sedative) effects. Contraindications: Hypersensiti …

Therapeutic Class: Sedative/Antiemetic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Prototype phenothiazine used primarily as an antiemetic; may be particularly useful in treating motion sickness in cats. Generally contraindicated in horses. Negligible analg …

Therapeutic Class:Broad-Spectrum Antibacterial (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Broad-spectrum antibiotic with good penetration to most tissues, including the eye, CNS, and prostate.Banned in food animals. Should be avoided or used with extreme caution i …

Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a neurologic disease in horses caused by infection with the protozoan Sarcocystis neurona. The parasite infects horses when they ingest the S. neurona organism in contaminated feed or water. The definitive …

Sarcocystis neurona is a protozoan apicomplexan parasite that causes the neurological disease equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses residing in the Americas.1 EPM is considered to be the most serious infectious neurologic disease of hors …

Therapeutic Class: Hormonal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Synthetic GnRH analog indicated to induce ovulation in estrual mares. It is especially useful in artificial insemination and estrus synchronization programs. Deslorelin acetat …

Therapeutic Class: Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Injectable, oral, and ophthalmic glucocorticoid A specific diagnosis is needed before glucocorticoids are administered, as they can mask disease. A course of treatment should b …

Therapeutic Class: Hormonal Agent (Estrogen) (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Natural estrogen salt used primarily to induce estrus; has been used as an abortifacient (rarely recommended today). Contraindications: Pregnancy (as it is abortifa …

Therapeutic Class: Antiparasitic Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Anthelmintic useful for reduction and removal of nematode and protozoal parasites in a variety of species. Adverse effects may include hypersensitization reactions caused …

Therapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic, Prokinetic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Macrolide antibiotic most commonly used (with rifampin) in foals; uncommonly used in dogs and cats. Prokinetic agent, at doses much lower than required for t …

Therapeutic Class:Tetracycline Antibiotic (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Oral & parenteral tetracycline antibiotic.Bone & teeth abnormalities are much less likely than with other tetracyclines, but drug should be used with caution in pregnant & young …

Therapeutic Class: Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic (Systemic Drug)General Notes: Veterinary oral and injectable fluoroquinolone antibiotic effective against a variety of pathogens; not effective against anaerobes. In dogs, oral bioavailability is be …

Veterinarians first described the set of symptoms that would come to be known as equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in 1968.1 In the 1970s, researchers determined that this this devastating neurologic illness was caused by a protozoan, although …

Diclazuril is a triazinone antiprotozoal that is effective for treating equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) caused by Sarcocystis neurona. It is also used in treating infections caused by Isospora spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Eimeria spp,1 and a …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) continues to frustrate North American horse owners and veterinarians as one of the most common neurologic diseases in horses–and one of the most challenging to diagnose and treat.1 (EPM) is caused by the proto …

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a disease of horses that affects the central nervous system. The primary causative agent for EPM is Sarcocystis neurona, a protozoan organism. The disease was described in the 1960s as segmental myelitis. B …

In wildlife medicine, it is often necessary to chemically restrain animals to perform even the most basic procedures. This is particularly true when working with large animals, particularly large carnivores. Therefore, it is important for veterinaria …

There are currently over 2,400 zoos in the United States, and all of them have animals that require routine veterinary care and, occasionally, more invasive medical procedures. The “first responders” and first line of defense in a zoo medical program …

There is little difference between indigenous or exotic animals in a zoo setting versus in the wild, save for the inherent stressors involved in being in captivity. Whether dealing with a fox or a tiger in a zoo setting, these animals will periodical …

The capture of free-ranging animals is an important foundation of wildlife research and preservation. Minimizing harm to wildlife, and especially mortality, is a vital ethical concern.Veterinarians and animal care specialists who are familiar with a …

Natural resource management and research programs conducted in natural areas often require the administration of pharmaceuticals to wildlife. Pharmaceuticals commonly used in wildlife programs include anesthetic agents, sedatives, antibiotics, vacci …

While inhalant anesthetics remain the “gold standard” for anesthesia in veterinary medicine, there are many circumstances in which the veterinarian will opt for sedation rather than general anesthesia, particularly when exotic species are consi …

Wildlife veterinarians are licensed animal health professionals who specialize in treating many different types of wildlife, including birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. They may work either in a veterinary office setting or in the field, but …

Wildlife medicine treats, rehabilitates and conserves wild animal species.1 This differs from wildlife rehabilitation, in which the focus is on individual animals and where the goal is to care for each animal until it can be released back into the wi …

DiclazurilTherapeutic Class:Antiprotozoal (Systemic Drug)General Notes: FDA-approved (in US) for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses & as a coccidiostat in broiler chickens.In small animals may be given with or without food. If animal …

Based on the available literature, the most favorable age group for breeding horses is with mares between the ages of 4 and 12. Once the mare surpasses the age of 12—and particularly if it’s a maiden mare—the conventional wisdom dictates that issues …

Acepromazine Therapeutic Class: Sedative General Notes: Required doses used may be lower than those listed on the approved label. Relatively long duration of action Negligible analgesic effects alone, but can potentiate effects o …

Acetazolamide Therapeutic Class: Diuretic (Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor) General Notes: Used for metabolic alkalosis or glaucoma (open angle glaucoma) in small animals and hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in horses. Contraindic …

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Therapeutic Class: Systemic Hormonal Diagnostic Agent (steroid hormone) General Notes: Stimulates cortisol release; used primarily to test for hyper- or hypoadrenocorticism (ACTH-stimulation test); use as …

Altrenogest Therapeutic Class: Progestin (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Progestational drug used in horses to suppress estrus or maintain pregnancy when progestin deficient; used in swine to synchronize estrus. Available commercially …

Amikacin SulfateTherapeutic Class: Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Parenteral aminoglycoside antibiotic with good activity against a variety of bacteria, predominantly gram-negative aerobic bacilli and staphylococci. Adverse effe …

Atipamezole HCLTherapeutic Class:Alpha-2 Adrenergic Antagonist (Systemic Drug)General Notes:Alpha-2 adrenergic antagonist; reverses the effects of agonists such as dexmedetomidine, medetomidine, and xylazine.No safety data on use in pregnant or lact …

AzithromycinTherapeutic Class: Macrolide Antibiotic (Systemic Drug) General Notes: Oral and parenteral macrolide antibiotics; potentially useful for treating a variety of bacterial infections in veterinary patients; not effective for treating …

BetamethasoneTherapeutic Class:Glucocorticoid (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Injectable glucocorticoid. Long acting; 25 to 40 times more potent than hydrocortisone; no mineralocorticoid activity.Primary use is intra-articular administration in horse …

Buserelin AcetateTherapeutic Class:Hormonal Agent (Systemic Drug) General Notes:Buserelin is a synthetic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue that is designed to alter hormone levels.Typically employed in order to induce ovulation in cycl …